i     i 


I     \ 


MAY  80  1911 


BV  1471  . 

K46 

1911 

Kent,  Charles  Foster, 

1867- 

1925. 

The  great 

,  teachers  of 

Judaism 

and 

Christianity 

MODERN  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  MANUA 


Edited    by    Charles    Foster    Kent    in 
Collaboration   with    John   T.    McFarland 


The  Great  Teachers  of 
Judaism  and  Christianity 

By  CHARLES  FOSTER  KENT 


NEWYORK:    EATON   &   MAINS 
CINCINNATI  :   JENNINGS  &  GRAHAM 


Copyright,    191 1,  by 
CHARLES  F.  KENT 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface    5 

CHAPTER 

I     The  Secret  of  Israel's  Conquering  Power.  . .        7 
II     The     Real    Character    and    Aims    of    the 

Prophets 13 

III     The  Prophets  as  Story-Tellers  and  Preachers      2 1 
IV.   The  Teaching  Methods  of  the  Prophets.  .  .      34 

V.   The  Duties  and  Aims  of  the  Priests 42 

VI.   The  Teaching  Methods  of  the  Priests 49 

VII.   The  History  and  Aims  of  the  Wise  Men  or 

Sages 60 

VIII.   The  Methods  of  the  Wise  Men  or  Sages.  .  .      74 
IX-  The  History  and  Aims  of   the  Scribes    and 

Rabbis 86 

X.   The  Methods  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis.  .  .      95 

XI.   The  Training  and  Aims  of  the  Great  Teacher   i  o  7 

XII.  Jesus's  Way  of  Making  Men 118 

XIII.  The  Aims  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers   131 

XIV.  The  Methods  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers  139 
XV,  The  Larger  Prophetic  and  Christian  Con- 
ception of  Religious  Education 148 

Appendix 


59 


PREFACE 

The  nucleus  of  this  book  was  a  series  of  lec- 
tures on  'The  Aims  and  Methods  of  Israel's 
Teachers"  given  at  Berkeley,  Oakland,  and  San 
Francisco  at  the  invitation  of  the  Sunday  School 
Commission  of  the  Episcopal  Diocese  of  Cali- 
fornia. The  same  course  of  lectures  has  also 
been  given  wholly  or  in  part  at  the  University 
of  North  Dakota,  Washburn  College,  Yankton 
College,  the  University  of  Kansas,  the  University 
of  Missouri,  the  Hebrew  Union  College,  the 
University  of  Cincinnati,  and  the  Syrian  Protes- 
tant College  at  Beirut,  Syria,  as  well  as  before 
many  groups  of  Sunday-school  workers.  The 
original  treatment  of  the  subject  has  been  en- 
riched by  the  results  of  inspiring  conferences 
with  those  actively  engaged  in  the  work  of  re- 
ligious education.  One  fact  has  constantly  come 
to  the  front:  it  is  that  the  Christian  Church  at 
large  and  even  the  great  majority  of  its  active 
teachers  are  only  partially  acquainted  with  the 
deeply  significant  educational  traditions  which 
gather  about  the  beginning  of  Judaism  and 
Christianity.  An  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
character,  aims,  and  methods  of  the  great  re- 
ligious teachers  who  have  recorded  their  work 
not  only  in  the  Bible,  but  also  in  the  very 
bone  and  marrow  of  our  modern  civilization,  is 
the  first  requisite  in  the  practical  equipment  of 
a  modern  religious  teacher.  The  wonderful 
5 


6  Preface 

teachers  of  the  past  haA^e  a  message  full  of  in- 
spiration and  suggestion  for  those  dealing  with 
the  same  human  problems.  To  present  these 
historic  facts  briefly  but  clearly,  and  to  interpret 
the  message  of  these  early  teachers  to  their  suc- 
cessors to-day,  is  the  aim  of  this  volume. 
Westmore,  Vermont,  C.  F.  K. 

July,  191  o. 


THE   SECRET   OF   ISRAEL'S   CONQUERING 
POWER 

It  is  a  profoundly  significant  fact  that  the 
roots  of  the  two  great  expanding  rehgions  of  to- 
day— Christianity  and  Islam — sprang  from  the 
soil  of  Judaism.  The  truths  first  enunciated  by 
Israel's  prophets,  priests,  and  sages  among  the 
secluded  hills  of  Palestine  have  permeated  the 
whole  world  and  molded  the  faith  of  nearly  half 
the  human  race.  What  is  the  explanation  of  this 
mighty  power  which  has  not  only  preserved  the 
Israelitish  race  intact  through  centuries  of  op- 
pression and  persecution,  but  also  conquered  the 
hearts  and  minds  of  the  most  advanced  nations 
of  the  earth?  The  first  reason  is  to  be  found  in 
the  character  of  Israel's  faith  as  it  unfolded 
under  the  influence  of  the  remarkable  expe- 
riences through  which  the  nation  passed.  But  the 
character  and  growth  of  Israel's  faith  only  par- 
tially explain  its  conquering  power.  To  retain 
its  hold  upon  a  race,  as  has  Judaism,  a  religion 
must  be  effectively  instilled  into  the  minds  of 
each  succeeding  generation.  It  must  also  be  ever 
developing,  so  as  to  adapt  itself  to  the  needs  of 
each  age  and  individual.  In  the  fact  that  the 
great  founders  and  interpreters  of  Israel's  re- 
ligion have  been  from  the  first  faithful  and 
skilled  teachers  doubtless  lies  the  reason  why  it 
still  dominates,  in  ever-increasing  measure,  the 
ideals  and  beliefs  of  mankind. 


Teachers  the 
Founders  of 
Israel's  Religion 


8  Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Judaism's 
Emphasis  on 
Teaching 


Highest  Honor 
Paid  to  the 
Teacher 


Judaism  has  always  been  in  the  truest  sense  a 
teaching  religion.  It  has  depended  primarily  for 
its  perpetuation  and  extension  not  upon  preach- 
ing, or  upon  creeds,  or  upon  the  mere  forms  of 
worship,  but  upon  the  personal  touch  of  the 
teacher  and  those  taught.  It  has  also  strongly 
emphasized  the  supreme  importance  of  the  defi- 
nite and  continuous  education  of  the  individual, 
beginning  with  earliest  childhood.  "These 
words,  which  I  command  thee  this  day,  shall  be 
upon  thy  heart ;  and  thou  shalt  impress  them 
upon  thy  children,  and  thou  shalt  talk  of  them 
when  thou  sittest  in  thy  house,  and  when  thou 
walkest  by  the  way,  and  when  thou  liest  down, 
and  when  thou  risest  up.  Thou  shalt  bind  them 
as  a  reminder  on  thy  hand,  and  have  them  as 
bands  on  thy  forehead  between  thine  eyes,  and 
thou  shalt  mark  them  on  the  posts  of  thy  house 
and  on  thy  doors"  (Deut.  6.  6-9). 

Moreover,  the  religious  teachers  of  ancient 
Israel  were  fully  awake  to  the  importance  of 
question  and  answer:  "When  thy  son  asks  thee 
in  the  future.  What  mean  the  testimonies,  and 
the  statutes,  and  the  judgments,  which  Jehovah 
our  God  hath  commanded  you?  then  shalt  thou 
say  to  thy  son,  We  were  Pharaoh's  slaves,  in 
Egypt ;  but  Jehovah  brought  us  out  of  Egypt 
with  a  strong  hand ;  and  Jehovah  performed  be- 
fore our  eyes  great  and  destructive  signs  and 
wonders,  upon  Egypt,  upon  Pharaoh,  and  upon 
all  his  household ;  and  he  brought  us  out  from 
there,  that  he  might  bring  us  in  to  give  us  the 
land  which  he  sware  unto  our  fathers"  (Deut.  6. 
20-23).    The  result  was  that  among  the  Israelites 


The  Secret  of  Israel's  Power 


the  practical  science  of  education  was  developed 
as  among  no  other  ancient  people,  except  possibly 
the  Greeks.  In  no  other  nation  was  such  high 
honor  and  respect  paid  to  the  scholar  and  teacher. 
The  pictures  of  the  rich  and  noble  youth  sitting 
deferentially  at  the  feet  of  some  famous  rabbi,  as 
he  plied  his  humble  trade  and  at  the  same  time 
taught  his  disciples,  are  among  the  fairest  and 
most  significant  that  come  to  us  from  classic 
Judaism.  To-day  there  still  remains  in  the  mind 
of  every  faithful  Jew  an  instinctive  and  deep  re- 
spect for  the  learned  teacher  and  rabbi.  The 
well-known  zeal  and  skill  of  the  Jew  in  the  pur- 
suit of  learning  are  in  all  probability  the  fruits 
of  this  same  hereditary  instinct. 

A  further  explanation  of  Israel's  conquering  Aim  to  Educate 
power  lies  in  the  fact  that  its  teachers  sought 
not  merely  to  instruct  but  to  educate.  Abstract 
theology  was  to  them  practically  unknown. 
Their  creed  was  expressed  in  laws  intended  to 
develop  a  right  personal  attitude  toward  God 
and  man  and  to  lead  to  worthy  and  effective 
action.  As  the  Great  Teacher  truly  said :  to  love 
the  Lord  with  all  one's  powers  and  might  and 
the  neighbor  as  one's  self  was  the  essence  of 
Israel's  law.  It  was  upon  the  development  of  the 
individual  man  that  the  ultimate  emphasis  was 
placed. 

To     make     his     development     complete     and    The  Three 
rounded   different   classes   of  teachers   were   re-   Classes  of 

1  1  '  -11  <-T->i  Teachers 

quired  to  meet  his  many-sided  needs.  Ihree 
distinct  types  of  teachers  arose  in  early  Israel, 
each  with  its  distinct  tasks  and  contributions  to 
the  development  of  the  individual  and  the  nation, 


10        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Didactic 
Character  of 
Israel's 
Scriptures 


In  threatening-  the  Hfe  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
his  foes  incidentally  brought  these  three  classes 
into  close  connection  and  contrast:  "For  the 
teaching  shall  not  depart  from  the  priest,  nor 
counsel  from  the  wise,  nor  the  word  from  the 
prophet"  (Jer.  i8.  i8).  By  specific  instructions 
in  regard  to  each  man's  obligations  to  God,  to 
the  state,  and  to  his  fellow  men,  by  personal 
counsel  and  practical  instruction  and  by  authori- 
tative message  the  priests,  the  wise  men,  and  the 
prophets  not  only  molded  Israel's  faith  and 
ideals,  but  also  guided  the  thoughts,  the  morals, 
and  the  acts  of  each  individual.  Their  character 
and  work  alone  explain  how  a  mixed  group  of 
rude  Semitic  nomads  in  time  became  a  prophetic 
nation  at  whose  feet  the  most  progressive  races 
of  the  earth  have  learned  the  fundamental  truths 
of  ethics  and  religion. 

The  scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  as  a 
whole  are  the  clearest  indices  of  the  character, 
aims,  and  methods  of  Israel's  religious  guides, 
for  they  are  the  notes  from  the  classroom.s  of 
these  early  teachers.  It  is  only  in  the  light  of  the 
aims  and  methods  of  these  teachers  that  the  Old 
Testament  writings  can  be  fully  understood. 
An  intensely  practical,  didactic  purpose  charac- 
terizes them  all.  It  was  the  educational  motif, 
the  desire  to  develop  character  by  the  presentation 
of  truth  in  efl:*ective  form,  that  gave  rise  to  the 
Old  Testament.  If  Israel's  religion  had  not  been 
a  teaching  religion  and  its  guides  teachers,  there 
would  have  been  no  Old  Testament. 

Later  Judaism,  recognizing  the  true  character 
of  these  writings,  rightly  designated  them  col- 


The  Secret  of  Israel's  Power 


11 


lectively  as  ^'The  Torah."  This  word,  which 
comes  from  the  verb  meaning,  to  guide,  to  teach, 
is  commonly  translated,  The  Lazv,  but  it  is  better 
represented  by  the  broader  and  more  exact  term. 
The  Teaching.  The  word  ''torah"  occurs  more 
than  two  hundred  times  in  the  Old  Testament. 
It  is  used  to  designate,  (i)  the  counsel  and  in- 
struction which  the  wise  men  or  sages  gave  to 
their  disciples  (Prov.  13.  14;  28.  4,  7,  9);  (2) 
the  authoritative  or  the  detailed  directions  given 
to  the  people  by  the  priests  (Hag.  2.  11;  Mai. 
2.  6-9;  Psa.  :^y.  31  ;  40.  8)  ;  and  {^^  the  teachings 
of  a  certain  prophet  or  of  the  prophets  as  a  whole 
(Isa.  8.  16;  42.  21,  24;  Jer.  9.  13;  16.  11;  Zech. 
7.  12).  To  some  one  of  these  three  classes  of 
teaching  belong  all  the  writings  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  this  basis  of  division  furnishes 
by  far  the  most  satisfactory  and  illuminating- 
classification  of  these  earlier  scriptures. 

The  same  strongly  didactic  purpose  character- 
izes the  writings  of  the  New  Testament.  It  con- 
sists for  the  most  part  of  teachings  from  the  Great 
Teacher  and  from  the  lips  of  the  apostles  who 
followed  in  his  footsteps.  The  oldest  source 
found  in  the  Gospels  is  held  by  modern  biblical 
scholars,  as  well  as  by  the  traditions  of  the 
Church,  to  have  been  a  collection  of  Jesus's 
teachings.  With  these  were  early  blended  the 
narratives  regarding  the  Master  that  were  told 
by  his  disciples  in  order  to  instruct  their  hearers 
concerning  his  character  and  work.  The  strong 
didactic  purpose  that  inspired  the  epistles  of  the 
New  Testament  is  plainly  written  on  every  page. 
Debarred  for  various  reasons  from  speaking  per- 


The  Different 
Types  of 
Teaching 


Educational 
Aim  of  The 
New  Testament 
■Writings 


1  2        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

sonally  to  the  groups  of  disciples  whom  he 
wished  to  teach,  Paul  put  in  his  letters  what  he 
would  have  said  had  he  been  present  in  their 
midst.  Other  disciples  followed  his  example, 
and  thus  arose  the  earliest  New  Testament  writ- 
ings. The  New  Testament  is  the  Christian 
ToraJi  or  Teaching,  just  as  the  Old  Testament 
is  that  of  the  Jews.  Paul  brings  out  very  clearly 
the  teaching  character  of  the  biblical  writings: 
"Every  scripture  inspired  by  God  is  also  profit- 
able for  teaching,  for  reproof,  for  correction, 
for  training  in  righteousness,  that  the  man  of 
God  may  be  perfect  and  perfectly  equipped  for 
every  good  work"  (2  Tim.  3.  16,  17).  The 
development  of  perfect  and  efficient  manhood 
and  womanhood  is  the  supreme  object  for  which 
the  Bible  was  given  to  man.  Doctrines,  laws, 
creeds,  and  forms  of  worship  are  also  of  value 
simply  as  they  conserve  this  divinest  of  all  aims, 
the  making  of  men.  Jesus  and  his  apostles  unite 
with  the  earlier  prophets,  priests,  and  sages  in 
declaring  by  word  and  lifework  that  it  is  more 
blessed  to  make  men  than  to  save  men,  and  that 
the  best,  indeed,  the  only  sure  way  of  making 
men,  and  thus  effectively  uplifting  mankind,  is 
through  the  personal  touch  of  the  religious 
teacher. 


II 


THE   REAL   CHARACTER   AND   AIMS   OF   THE 
PROPHETS 


The  True 


The  prophets  are  the  most  famihar,  and  yet, 
in  many  ways,  the  least  understood,  of  Israel's    Pat"otsof 

^  T-T     r  11  "     Ancient  Israel 

teachers.  Unfortunately,  the  common  usage  ot 
the  English  word  "prophet"  is  misleading.  It 
suggests  that  his  chief  function  is  that  of  a  pre- 
dictor. While  the  Hebrew  prophets  did  at  times 
predict,  prediction  was  only  a  small  and  com- 
paratively insignificant  part  of  their  work.  In- 
stead of  being  visionaries,  intent  only  on  the 
future,  they  were  preeminently  men  of  their  day, 
in  closest  touch  with  existing  conditions.  In- 
stead of  idly  waiting  for  some  distant  consum- 
mation, they  put  forth  all  their  energies  to  real- 
ize in  their  own  day,  and  in  the  life  of  their 
people,  the  practical  ideals  which  filled  their 
souls.  They  were,  indeed,  the  great  patriots  of 
Israel,  alert,  efficient  citizens  not  only  of  their 
own  nation,  but  also  of  that  larger  common- 
wealth the  founding  of  which  was  the  object  of 
their  earnest  endeavors. 

A  certain  element  of  mystery  envelops  the  Genesis  of  the 
personality  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  and  yet  their  Prophet 
growth  is  no  more  mysterious  than  that  of  the 
plant  or  of  the  human  being,  whose  development 
may  now  be  traced  at  each  successive  stage. 
The  foundation  of  the  work  of  the  earliest  proph- 
ets was  the  innate,  universal  desire  of  the  primi- 
13 


1 4        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

tive  peoples  to  know  the  will  of  the  Deity 
in  order  to  make  it  the  g-uide  in  their  individual 
action.  Inasmuch  as  the  ancients  were  igno- 
rant of  natural  laws  and  of  God's  way  of  work- 
ing-, the  future  for  them  w^as  filled  with  appre- 
hension and  dread.  The  result  was  that  they 
always  paid  high  tribute  to  the  soothsayers, 
augurs,  necromancers,  prophets,  and  prophetesses 
who  w^ere  supposed  to  be  able,  with  authority,  to 
interpret  the  various  signs  which  were  regarded 
as  indices  of  the  divine  will.  While  these  popu- 
lar interpreters  of  the  Deity  were  found  among 
most,  if  not  all,  primitive  peoples,  the  immediate 
forerunners  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  arose,  as 
might  be  expected,  amid  the  peculiar  life  and 
atmosphere  of  the  desert.  The  long,  dangerous 
m.arches,  the  constant  fear  of  attack,  the  sense  of 
loneliness  and  dependence  gave  the  ancient 
kahin,  or  seer,  a  commanding  place  in  that  early 
nomadic  world.  This  kahin — the  man  with  the 
veil — who  was  able  to  render  an  oracle  and  thus 
authoritatively  proclaim  the  will  of  the  Deity, 
was  ever  held  in  highest  honor.  Usually  his 
oracle  was  cast  in  poetic,  epigrammatic  form. 
To  him  chieftains  resorted,  as  did  David  to  the 
priest  Abiathar,  before  they  went  out  to  battle, 
that  they  might  ascertain  the  outcome.  To  him, 
also,  men  went  with  their  questions  of  private 
concerns,  that  they  might  through  him  receive 
a  divine  answer. 
Developed  by  In  the  light  of  the  very  old  narrative  preserved 

in  the  ninth  chapter  of  i  Samuel,  it  is  clear  that 
originally  Samuel,  the  seer  of  Ramah,  was  closely 
related  to  the  ancient  kahin.    To  him  Saul  and  his 


National  Crises 
and  Needs 


Character  and  Aims  of  the  Prophets  1  5 

servant  went  with  a  gift  in  order  to  learn  wlierc 
the  lost  asses  were,  and  were  not  disappointed. 
This  old  narrative  regarding  Samuel  also  sug-  ^ 
gests  the  way  in  which  the  primitive  seer  was 
transformed  into  the  prophet.  The  great  crises 
through  which  Israel  was  passing  as  a  result  of 
the  cruel  Philistine  dominance  opened  his  eyes 
to  the  need  of  some  one  to  rally  and  to  lead 
forth  to  victory  the  scattered  Hebrew  tribes. 
Spurred  on  by  his  appreciation  of  this  need, 
Samuel,  the  seer  of  Ramah,  sought  and  found 
Saul,  the  son  of  Kish,  and  kindled  within  him  a 
consuming  zeal  to  become  the  defender  of  his 
people,  when  the  favorable  moment  should  ar- 
rive. In  performing  this  task,  with  its  far- 
reaching  significance,  Samuel  not  only  became, 
in  a  sense,  the  founder  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom, 
but  from  being  a  mere  seer  became  a  true 
prophet.  In  the  same  way,  the  appreciation  of 
the  needs  of  her  nation  transformed  Deborah, 
who  enjoyed  a  popular  local  reputation  similar 
to  that  of  Samuel  the  seer,  into  a  true  prophetess 
who  guided  her  nation  through  a  great  crisis  to 
victory,  thereby  inaugurating  a  new  era  in  the 
religious  life  of  Israel. 

Each  of  the  great  prophets  gives  clear  indica-   Amos's  Caii  to 
tions    of   the    wav    in    which   he   was    called    to    ^'^  Prophetic 

Task 

his  great  task.  The  personal  experience  of 
Amos  is  richly  suggestive.  Trained  as  a  shep- 
herd, accustomed  to  be  constantly  on  the  watch 
against  the  attack  of  wild  beasts,  quick  to  sound 
the  note  of  alarm,  skilled  in  putting  his  flock  in 
a  state  of  defense,  ready  to  risk  his  own  life,  if 
need  be,  to  protect  those  intrusted  to  him,  it  was 


1 6  Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

a  natural  step  which  transformed  him  from  the 
watchman  over  a  flock  of  sheep  and  goats  into 
Jehovah's  watchman  sounding  the  cry  of  alarm 
in  the  ears  of  the  northern  Israelites.  Keen  in 
scenting  danger  from  afar,  he  had  foreseen  the 
ominous  approach  of  the  Assyrian  armies.  He 
had  heard  the  growl  of  the  Assyrian  lion.  The 
significance  of  the  danger  had  suddenly  dawned 
upon  him,  and,  faithful  to  his  training,  he  did 
not  hesitate  a  moment  in  proclaiming  aloud 
the  coming  danger.  His  own  words  reveal 
the  impression  that  Assyria's  advance  made 
upon  him : 

Surely  the  Lord  Jehovah  doeth  nothing, 

Unless   he    revealeth   his   purpose    to   his    servants    the 

prophets. 
The  lion  has  roared;  who  does  not  fear? 
The  Lord  Jehovah  hath  spoken  ;  who  can  but  prophesy  ? 

(Amos  3.  7,  8.) 

Isaiah's  Call  Similarly    Isaiah,    the    young   noble    of   Jeru- 

salem, in  the  critical  year  when  the  strong  hand 
of  Uzziah,  the  king,  was  relaxed  by  death,  felt 
stirring  irresistibly  within  him  the  divine  call  to 
rise  from  the  ranks  of  the  nation,  "unclean  of 
lip,"  and  proclaim  the  inevitable  judgment  which 
he  saw  approaching.  With  this  keen  sense  of  the 
guilt  of  his  people  and  of  the  magnitude  of  the 
danger  which  impended,  there  came  to  his  open 
mind  a  new  and  nobler  and  larger  appreciation 
of  the  real  character  and  demands  of  Jehovah. 
Henceforth  his  task  was  to  spare  no  effort  to 
lead  his  race  out  of  its  guilt  and  to  inspire  it  to 
rise  to  the  full  realization  of  Jehovah's  righteous 
demands. 


Character  and  Aims  of  the  Prophets  1  7 

The  influences  which  transformed  Hosea,  the  Hosea's  caii 
poet-prophet  of  the  northern  kingdom,  into  a  and  Training 
herald  of  righteousness  came  not  so  much 
through  the  experiences  of  his  nation  as  through 
the  pathetic  tragedy  of  his  own  private  life.  The 
infideHty  of  his  W'ife  revealed  to  him  the  unspeak- 
able pain  w^hich  the  sin  of  the  one  loved  brought 
to  him  who  loved.  It  gave  him  a  new  conception 
of  the  depth  and  breadth  of  human  love  toward 
the  sinner;  it  made  clear  the  need  of  stern  dis- 
cipline in  order  to  arouse  penitence  in  the  heart 
of  the  wrongdoer ;  it  disclosed  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  true  penitence  as  a  basis  for  forgiveness 
and  reconciliation.  Through  his  own  private  ex- 
perience Hosea  also  gained  a  new  appreciation  of 
the  divine  readiness  and  eagerness  to  forgive  the 
penitent  sinner.  Thus  upon  Hosea's  inner  con- 
sciousness were  branded  the  elemental,  eternal 
truths  which  are  the  basis  of  life  and  religion. 
These  truths  he  naturally  employed  in  interpret- 
ing Jehovah's  relation  to  his  unfaithful  nation 
Israel.  Thus  expressed  they  became  a  universal 
message,  the  foundations  of  the  teachings  not 
only  of  the  prophets,  but  of  Jesus  himself. 

The  great  Hebrew  prophets  were  the  con-  Many-sided 
science  of  their  race.  They  were  the  men  with  Activity  of  the 
open  mind,  the  discoverers  of  new  and  eternal 
truths,  Jehovah's  willing  and  faithful  heralds  to 
all  mankind  as  well  as  to  their  own  nation.  In- 
stead of  being  passive  mouthpieces  of  Jehovah, 
they  were  the  most  intelligent  and  best  educated 
men  of  their  day,  the  keenest  students  of  political 
and  social  conditions,  the  most  unselflsh  patriots 
and  the  most  courageous  heroes.     According  to 


Prophets 


1 8         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Their  First  Aim 
to  Point  Out  and 
Counteract  the 
Evils  of  Their 
Day 


their  own  peculiar  gifts  and  the  exigencies  of 
their  age,  some  of  them  were  social  reformers 
and  others  were  practical  statesmen  intent  upon 
guiding  the  nation  safely  through  its  great  crises. 
Some,  like  Isaiah,  combining  all  these  many- 
sided  attributes,  were  statesmen,  social  and 
moral  reformers,  and  practical  theologians. 
Usually  they  spoke  not  to  the  individual  but  to 
the  people  as  a  whole ;  they  appealed  not  to  party 
prejudice  but  to  the  conscience  and  reason  of  the 
nation ;  they  set  forth  principles  rather  than 
policies. 

Whatever  was  their  individual  method  of 
work,  all  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  strove  in  com- 
mon to  attain  certain  definite  aims.  Their  first 
aim  was  to  hold  up  a  mirror  before  their  nation 
that  its  errors  and  its  worst  evils  might  be  made 
perfectly  clear.  No  pet  crime  or  favored  class 
escaped  their  keen  vision  and  their  fearless  de- 
nunciations. By  many  of  their  contemporaries 
they  were  regarded  as  pessimists  and  muck- 
rakers.  In  the  twenty-eighth  chapter  of  Isaiah 
one  hears  the  complaints  of  the  rulers  because 
he  was  constantly  speaking  of  ''the  overwhelm- 
ing scourge"  that  was  coming.  They  ironically 
mimicked  his  continuous  harping  upon  the  so- 
cial and  political  evils  of  his  day  and  by  their 
tatmts  roused  hmi  to  a  sharp  retort.  Owing  to 
the  willful  blindness  of  the  people,  a  large  part  of 
the  recorded  sermons  of  the  prophets  were  de- 
voted to  making  clear  the  menacing  evils  of  that 
day  and  to  pointing  out,  in  dramatic  and  im- 
pressive form,  the  certain  consequences  that 
would  overtake  the  nation  unless  those  to  whom 


Character  and  Aims  of  the  Prophets  1 9 

the  prophets  spoke  heeded  and  fundamentally 
changed  their  policies  and  acts. 

The  second  aim  of  the  prophets  was  positive: 
it  was  to  impress  upon  their  countrymen  those 
eternal  principles  of  justice  and  mercy  which 
had  been  gradually  revealed  to  them  in  the  stress 
of  their  national  and  personal  experiences,  so  as 
to  lead  men  to  accept  and  apply  those  principles 
in  their  social  and  individual  relations.  Here 
the  earlier  prophets  placed  the  great  emphasis 
in  their  work.  To  lead  their  nation  and  their 
fellow  countrymen  to  do  what  was  right  was 
their  consuming  ambition. 

The  third  aim  of  the  prophets  was  closely  con- 
nected with  the  second.  It  was  to  give  their 
hearers  a  truer  and  larger  conception  of  the 
character  of  Jehovah  and  of  his  practical  de- 
mands upon  his  people.  Jehovah's  character 
was  to  them  the  ultimate  reason  for  right  doing. 
Injustice,  insincerity,  and  cruelty  were,  accord- 
ing to  their  teachings,  disloyalty  to  Jehovah. 
Justice,  mercy,  and  true  reverence  were  the  only 
valid  evidences  of  true  loyalty.  Ceremonial 
forms  and  external  acts  of  worship  were  by  them 
esteemed  but  lightly.  Thus  the  early  Hebrew 
prophets  ethicized  religion  and  spiritualized 
ethics,  and  in  so  doing  blended  both. 

The  ultimate  aim  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  was 
to  broaden  and  deepen  the  definition  of  religion 
and  to  make  it  a  real  and  guiding  influence  in 
the  daily  life  of  men.  Thus  they  sought  to  real- 
ize in  their  nation  the  will  of  God,  and  through 
that  realization  to  touch  and  transform  the  aims 
and  ideals  and  acts  of  all  mankind.    Even  though 


Second:  To  Lead 
Men  "to  Act 
Justly  and  Love 
Mercy" 


Third:  To  Make 
Clear  Jehovah's 
Character  and 
Demands 


Fourth:  To 
Have  God's  Will 
Done  on  Earth 


20         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

not  fully  appreciated  by  the  earlier  prophets,  the 
final  goal  of  all  their  work  was  to  establish  Je- 
hovah's eternal  and  gracious  rule  in  every  heart 
and  to  build  up  a  spiritual  kingdom  which  would 
be  universal  and  eternal. 


Ill 

THE  PROPHETS  AS  STORY-TELLERS  AND 
PREACHERS 

Inasmuch  as  the  aim  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  Practical 
was  not  merely  to  appeal  to  the  feelings  and  in-  diplomacy 
tellect  of  their  hearers,  but  io  influence  their  will, 
these  wise  teachers  employed  every  possible 
means  whereby  they  might  make  clear  and  im- 
pressive their  divinely  given  messages.  The 
earlier  prophets  depended  largely  upon  practical 
measures.  They  worked  primarily  through  men. 
Thus  Moses,  in  freeing  his  people,  appealed 
directly  to  Pharaoh.  Deborah,  the  prophetess, 
aroused  the  northern  leader,  Barak,  to  action 
and  through  him  rallied  the  scattered  Hebrew- 
tribes.  Samuel  inspired  Saul  to  rise  and  lead  his 
people  against  their  common  foe.  Nathan  co- 
operated with  Bathsheba  in  putting  Solomon 
upon  the  throne.  Ahijah,  in  seeking  to  deliver 
Israel  from  its  grave  religious  and  social  dangers, 
kindled  the  ambition  of  Jeroboam.  Elijah  called 
and  commissioned  Elisha  to  take  up  his  work; 
and  Elisha,  in  turn,  anointed  the  energetic  and 
ruthless  Jehu  to  carry  through  the  revolution 
which  overthrew  the  house  of  Ahab  and  its  com- 
promising policy.  In  the  great  crisis  of  734 
B.  C.  Isaiah  turned  first  to  the  king  and  the 
nobles  in  order  to  influence  them  not  to  involve 
Judah  in  entangling  alliances.  Later  the  same 
great  prophet  inspired  Hezekiah  to  undertake 
important  reforms.  Jeremiah  constantly  sought 
21 


22  Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

to  guide  the  policy  of  his  nation  by  advising 
kings  hke  Jehoiakim  and  Zedekiah.  Ezekiel  ap- 
pears to  have  ever  been  in  closest  touch  with  the 
elders  of  his  people.  Thus  one  of  the  most  com- 
monly used  and  effective  methods  of  the  proph- 
ets was  to  direct  by  wise  diplomacy  the  influ- 
ential men  of  their  nation. 

Being  wise  teachers,  the  prophets  also  appre- 
ciated the  great  value  of  story  and  illustration 
in  impressing  their  teachings  upon  the  mind  of 
the  child  nation.  The  result  is  that  much  of  the 
Old  Testament  consists  of  prophecy  of  the  past 
as  well  as  of  the  present  and  future.  Amos,  in 
his  appeal  to  the  people  of  northern  Israel,  re- 
corded in  Amos  2,  recalls  the  past  experiences 
of  the  people,  using  these  experiences  as  power- 
ful illustrations  of  the  principle  he  was  endeavor- 
in  to  establish : 


And  3^et  it  was  I  who  brought  you  up  from  the  land  of 

Egypt, 
And  led  you  forty  years  in  the  wilderness, 
And    brought   you   hither   to   possess    the   land   of   the 

Amorites. 
It  was  I  who  destroyed  from  before  them  the  Amorite, 
Whose  height  was  like  that  of  the  cedars,  and  he  was 

strong  as  the  oaks ; 
Yet  I  destroyed  his  fruit  from  above  and  his  roots  from 

beneath. 
Moreover,  I  raised  up  some  of  your  sons  to  be  prophets 

and  some  of  your  youth  to  be  Nazirites. 
Is   not  this   indeed   so,    O   Israel?     It   is  the   oracle  of 

Jehovah. 
But  ye  made  the   Nazirites  drink  wine,   and  upon  the 

prophets  ye  laid  a  prohibition.     (Amos  2.  10-12.) 


Hosea,   also,    in   seeking   to   emphasize   the   im- 
portance of  the  nation's  loyalty  to  Jehovah's  de- 


The  Prophets  as  Story-Tellers  23 

mands,   draws   his   illustrations   from  an   earlier 
chapter  in  their  national  history: 

Like  grapes  in  the  wilderness  I  found  Israel; 

Like  the  first  fruit  on  a  fig  tree  I   saw  your  fathers; 

But  as  soon  as  they  came  to  Baal-peor,  they  consecrated 

themselves  to  Baal, 
And  became  as  abominable  as  the  object  of  their  love. 

Jacob  fled  to  the  territory  of  Aram 
And  Israel  served  for  a  wife, 
Yea,  for  a  wife  he  herded  sheep. 
In  a  man's  strength  he  contended  with  God, 
He  contended  with  the  angel  and  prevailed. 
He  wept  and  besought  mercy  of  him. 
At  Bethel  Jehovah  found  him 
And  there  he  spoke  with  him. 
And  Jehovah  is  the  God  of  hosts, 
Jehovah  is  his  name. 

Thus  thou  shouldst  by  the  help  of  thy  God  return. 
Keep  true  love  and  justice, 

Wait   on   thy   God   without   ceasing.      (Hos.   9.    10;    12. 
12,  3b-6.) 

The  vivid  narratives  that  fill  the  historical  True  character 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  give  a  full  and  Testament 
faithful  picture  of  Israel's  national  life;  but  Narratives 
they  are  more  than  history.  No  mere  historian, 
for  example,  would  have  devoted — as  does  the 
author  of  Samuel — many  chapters  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  David's  sins  and  their  consequences  and 
but  two  or  three  to  the  great  political  and  military 
achievements  of  his  brilliant  reign.  This  pre- 
dominant interest  in  men  rather  than  in  facts  re- 
veals the  didactic  purpose  of  the  authors  of  these 
historical  books.  They  realized  that  by  seeing 
the  disastrous  effects  of  sin  as  well  as  the  de- 
sirable fruits  of  right  doing  men  could  be  led  to 
reject  the  evil  and  choose  the  good.  The  keen 
popular   interest    in    the   narratives    greatly    en- 


24  Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Didactic  Value 
of  Story  and 
History 


Larger 

Significance  of 
the  Biblical 
Stories 


hanced  their  teaching  value.  Through  frequent 
repetition  they  had  become  exceedingly  familiar 
to  the  people.  The  prophets  by  adapting  these 
stories  to  their  purpose  made  them  a  medium  of 
teaching,  which  was  all  the  more  effective  be- 
cause the  truths  were  conveyed  unconsciously. 

These  stories  are  told  simply,  concretely,  and 
dramatically.  They  appeal  as  strongly  to  the 
modern  reader  as  to  the  hearer  of  olden  time. 
The  characteristics  portrayed  are  true  to  human 
nature  in  any  age  or  race.  They  vividly  illus- 
trate those  elements  of  strength  and  weakness 
which  are  the  inspiration  and  peril  of  all  who 
are  in  the  stream  of  life.  The  accounts  of 
Israel's  experiences  in  Jehovah's  school  of  train- 
ing reveal  in  marvelously  clear,  dramatic  form 
God's  eternal  character  and  purpose  and  the  con- 
sequences of  ignorance  and  disobedience. 

The  question  of  whether  or  not  these  stories 
were  historical  in  every  detail  did  not  concern 
the  prophets.  They  took  and  utilized  them  as 
they  were  handed  down  from  the  past.  The 
great  and  vital  value  of  these  narratives  lay  in 
the  fact  that  they  illustrated  important  and 
eternal  principles.  Instead  of  being  mere  records 
of  past  events,  they  thus  became  molding  forces 
in  the  life  both  of  the  individual  and  the  nation, 
revealing  Jehovah's  character  and  will,  and  shap- 
ing the  religious  and  ethical  ideals  of  the  race. 
For  the  making  of  men  to-day,  they  are  among 
the  most  valuable  heritages  from  Israel's 
teachers.  Adapted  as  they  are  to  the  childhood 
of  the  race,  they  are  preeminently  fitted  for  use 
in  primary  religious  education. 


The  Prophets  as  Story-Tellers  25 

By  taking-  illustrations  that  were  familiar  and  use  of  Familiar 
of  interest  to  the  people  the  prophets  adapted 
their  methods  to  the  point  of  view  and  capacity 
of  their  hearers.  The  prophetic  forerunners  of 
Amos  and  Hosea  appear  to  have  depended 
largely  in  conveying  their  moral  and  spiritual 
teachings  upon  this  story  method. 

The  most  characteristic  method  of  the  great  Direct  Address 
prophets  was,  however,  the  direct  address.  In 
this  way  the  prophet  impressed  by  voice,  by  ges- 
ture, and  by  his  own  personality  his  God-given 
message  upon  the  leaders  and  upon  the  entire  na- 
tion. Sometimes  he  appeared  in  the  court  before 
the  king  and  princes ;  sometimes  he  appealed 
from  the  rulers  to  the  people.  Often  the  temple 
court,  where  the  people  assembled,  as  they  did 
three  times  each  year  for  united  w^orship,  was 
the  scene  of  the  prophet's  teaching.  Sometimes 
he  spoke  to  the  many,  and  sometimes  to  the  few 
gathered  close  about  him.  There  is  evidence  in 
their  recorded  addresses  that  the  great  prophets 
frequently  directed  questions  to  their  auditors 
and  in  turn  were  ever  open  to  receive  and  answer 
earnest  questions  presented  by  their  hearers.  As 
in  every  Oriental  audience,  the  relation  between 
the  speaker  and  those  addressed  was  especially 
close  and  personal.  The  prophets  were  pre- 
eminently Israel's  preachers,  but  they  were  more 
— they  were  also  teachers. 

The  addresses  of  the  preexilic  prophets  bear   J^°^*''^  J°f"^  °^ 
all   the   marks   of   careful   preparation.      To   the 
form    as    w^ell    as    to    the    content    these    great 
teachers  of  Israel  gave  careful  heed.     Following 
the  example  of  the  ancient  seers,  they  cast  their 


'heir  Addresses 


Meter  to 
Didactic  Ends 


26  Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

messages  in  poetic  form.  Poetry  alone  was  fitted 
to  convey  the  great  truths  which  filled  their  souls. 
The  result  was  that  the  form  and  sound  of  their 
words  as  they  fell  upon  the  ears  of  their  hearers 
appealed  powerfully  to  the  senses  of  those  who 
Adaptation  of  heard.  Hebrew  poetry  in  itself  was  uniquely 
adapted  to  this  end.  Its  fundamental  character- 
istic— the  repetition  of  the  same  idea  in  succeed- 
ing lines  in  slightly  variant  form — drove  home, 
as  with  repeated  blows,  the  essential  message  of 
the  poet-prophet.  This  parallelism,  or  repetition 
of  idea,  frequently  extended  to  succeeding  stan- 
zas, thus  making  it  possible  by  reiterating  again 
and  again  the  same  vital  message  to  appeal  at 
the  same  time  to  the  highly  developed  poetic 
sense  of  the  Oriental  audience.  The  prophets 
also  chose  with  great  care  the  meter  best  adapted 
to  their  theme.  If  it  was  a  strenuous  theme,  a 
clarion  call  or  a  warning  of  some  impending 
danger,  they  used  the  sharp,  quick  two-beat 
measure  employed  by  the  watchmen  when  they 
announced  the  sudden  appearance  of  a  hostile  in- 
vader. Ordinarily  they  used  the  three-beat 
measure  with  its  regular  cadence,  interrupted 
occasionally  for  the  sake  of  effectiveness  by  a 
closing  line  of  two  beats.  Thus  the  prophecy  of 
Nahum,  in  describing  the  last  decisive  attack  of 
Nineveh's  foes,  illustrates  forcibly  the  use  of 
these  two  meters: 

Keep  careful  watch ! 

Guard  the  way ! 

Gird  up  the  loins  ! 

Gather  all  thy  strength ! 
The  shield  of  his  heroes  is  colored  red. 
The  warriors  are  clad  in  scarlet. 


The  Prophets  as  Story-Tellers 


27 


The  steel  of  the  chariots  gleams  like  fire. 

In  the  day  of  preparation  the  horses  are  prancing. 

On  the  streets  the  chariots  rattle ; 

They  go  galloping  across  the  squares. 

Their  appearance  is  like  torches, 

Like  lightnings  they  dart  to  and  fro. 

He  musters  his  nobles, 

They  succeed  in  their  onset, 

They  rush  to  the  wall. 

They  set  up  the  covering; 

The  water  gates  are  opened ; 

And  the  palace  goes  down  in  ruins ! 

(Nah.  2.  1-6.) 

Sometimes  in  logical  reasoning  they  used  the   Meter  of  Logical 
more   deliberate   four-beat  measure,   as,   for  ex-    Reasoning 
ample,  when  Amos  sought  to  appeal  to  the  in- 
telligence of  the  people  of  northern  Israel: 

Surely  the  Lord  Jehovah  doeth  nothing. 

Unless    he    revealeth    his    purpose    to    his    servants   the 

prophets. 
The  lion  has  roared;  who  does  not  fear? 
The  Lord  Jehovah  hath  spoken;  who  can  but  prophesy? 

(Amos  3.  7,  8.) 


IMore  frequently  the  prophets  ttsed  the  effective 
five-beat  measure,  consisting  of  three  beats  fol- 
lowed by  two,  which  suggested  the  strong  tension 
under  which  the  prophet  spoke.  It  was  the  meter 
employed  by  the  wailing  women  as  they  sang 
over  the  bier  of  the  dead.  It  also  expressed 
great  joy,  as  for  example  that  of  the  warriors 
when  they  came  home  triumphant  from  battle. 
In  every  case  it  was  the  meter  which  expressed 
deep  emotion.  Amos  employed  it  when  he  sang 
the  death  dirge  over  northern  Israel,  whose  fail 
he  saw  to  be  iiiiminent : 

Hear  the  word  which   I  take  up  against  you,   even  a 
dirge,  O  house  of  Israel: 


Of  Deep 
Emotion 


28         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

Fallen,  no  more  to  rise,  is  the  virgin  Israel ! 
Prostrate  upon  the  ground  she  lies,  with  none  to  raise 
her!     (Amos  5.  i,  2.) 

Prophetic  Oracle  111  their  appeal  to  the  minds,  hearts,  and  wills 
of  men  the  prophets  marshaled  practically  every 
figure  of  speech  and  of  feeling  known  to  the 
ancient  writers.  Frequently  they  presented  their 
message  in  the  form  of  the  stirring  oracle,  which 
carried  with  it  the  time-honored  authority  at- 
tributed to  the  words  of  the  ancient  seers.  The 
oracle  was  addressed  to  some  individual  or  class 
ill  the  community,  or  else  to  the  nation  as  a 
whole.  The  personal  element  was  strong,  as,  for 
example,  in  Amos's  oracle  addressed  to  the 
luxury-loving,  cruel,  heartless  wives  of  the  nobles 
of  northern  Israel : 

Ye    kine    of    Bashan,    who    dwell    in   the    mountain   of 

Samaria, 
Who  oppress  the  poor  and  crush  the  needy. 
Who  say  to  your  husbands,  "Bring  that  we  may  drink." 
The  Lord  Jehovah  hatli  sworn  by  his  holiness ; 
"Behold,  days  are  coming  upon  you. 
When  ye  shall  be  taken  away  with  hooks,  even  the  last 

of  you  with  fish-hooks. 
And  through  the  breaches  shall  ye  go  out,  each  woman 

straight  before  her. 
And   ye   shall   be   cast   toward   Harmon,"   is  Jehovah's 

oracle.     (Amos  4.  1-3.) 

Invective  Sometimes    their   message    took   the    form   of 

bitter  invective ;  like  a  plaintiff  or  judge  they 
formulated  the  charge  against  the  guilty  classes 
or  crime-laden  nation.  A  powerful  example  of 
this  type  of  sweeping  charge  is  found  in  the 
opening  verses  of  the  fourth  chapter  of  Hosea: 

Hear  the  word  of  Jehovah,  O  Israelites, 
For  Jehovah  hath  a  charge  against  the  inhabitants  of 
the  land: 


The  Prophets  as  Story-Tellers  29 

For  there  is  no  fidelity  nor  true  love 

Nor  knowledge  of  God  in  the  land; 

But  perjury,  lying,  and  murder, 

Stealing,   committing  adultery,   and  deeds  of  violence, 

And  acts  of  bloodshed  quickly  follow  each  other. 

(Hos.  4.   I,  2.) 

At  times  the  prophets  cast  their  message  in  woes 
the  form  of  woes,  which  described  the  guilt  of 
the  culprits  and  the  nature  of  the  judgment  which 
Jehovah  pronounced  upon  them.  For  example, 
m  the  fifth  chapter  of  Isaiah,  these  woes  fall  in 
succession,  like  sledge-hammer  blows,  upon  the 
guilty  classes  in  the  nation: 

Woe  to  those  who  join  house  to  house, 
Who  add  field  to  field, 
Until  there  is  no  space  left, 
And  ye  dwell  alone  in  the  midst  of  the  land. 
In  mine  ears  Jehovah  of  hosts  hath  sworn. 
Surely  many  houses  shall  become  a  desolation, 
Though  great  and  fair,   they  shall  be  without  inhabit- 
ants ; 
For  ten  acres  of  vineyard  will  yield  but  one  bushel. 
And  ten  bushels  of  seed  but  one  bushel  of  grain. 

Woe  to  those  who  call  evil  good  and  good  evil, 

Who  put  darkness  for  light  and  light  for  darkness, 

Who  put  bitter  for  sweet  and  sweet  for  bitter ! 

Woe  to  those  who  are  wise  in  their  own  eyes ! 

And  prudent  in  their  own  conceit ! 

Woe  to  those  who  are  heroic  in  drinking  wine, 

And  valiant  in  mixing  strong  drink ! 

Who  for  a  bribe  vindicate  the  wicked 

And  strip  the  innocent  man  of  his  innocence. 

(Isa.  5.  8-10,  20-23.) 

At  times  the  prophets  sang  a  doom  song  tell-   Doom  songs 
ing,  by  the  aid  of  graphic  figures,  the  inevitable 
disaster  that  would  soon  sweep,  like  a  cyclone, 
over  the  nation : 

Human  pride  shall  be  brought  low, 

And  the  haughtiness  of  men  shall  be  bowed  down. 


30         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

And  in  that  day  shall  Jehovah  alone  be  exalted. 
For  a  day  of  judgment  hath  Jehovah  of  hosts 
Upon  all  that  is  proud  and  haughty, 
And  upon  all  that  is  lifted  up  and  high, 
Upon  all  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  the  haughty, 
And  upon  all  the  oaks  of  Bashan,  the  lifted  up. 
And  human  pride  shall  be  bowed  down, 
And  the  haughtiness  of  men  brought  low ; 
And  in  that  day  shall  Jehovah  alone  be  exalted, 
And  the  idols — completely  shall  they  pass  away, 

(Isa.  2.  11-13,  17,  18.) 

Paranomasia  At  timcs,  iiot  facetiouslv,  but  111  grim  earnest, 

the  prophets  employed  solemn  plays  on  the  sound 
of  words.  In  the  names  of  the  cities  about  his 
home  in  western  Judah  Micah  found  suggestions 
of  the  approaching  devastation  which  would  be 
visited  upon  them  as  they  fell  a  prey  to  Jehovah's 
agent  of  judgment,  Assyria: 

Tell  it  not  in  Gath  [Tell-town]  ! 
In  Giloh  [Exult-town]  exult  not! 
In  Bochim    [Weep-town]   weep ! 
In  Beth-le-aphrah  [Home-of-dust]  roll  in  the  dust! 
Pass    away!    O    inhabitants    of    Shaphir    [Fair-town] 

naked ! 
The   inhabitants   of  Zaanan    [March-town]    shall   not 

march  forth. 
Beth-ezel    [Nearby-house]    shall    be    taken    from    its 
standing-place. 
How  do  the   inhabitants   of   Maroth    [Bitterness]    wait 

for  good, 
For  evil  hath  come  down  from  Jehovah  to  the  gates  of 

Jerusalem. 
Harness    the    horse    to    the    chariot,    O    inhabitants    of 

Lachish  [Horse-town] 
For  in  thee  are  found  the  crimes  of  Israel. 

(Mic.   I.   10-13.) 

Argument  Logical  prophets  like  Amos  depended  at  times 

upon  close-knit  argument,  reasoning  from  effect 
to  cause  and  cause  to  effect  in  order  through  the 
intellect  to  appeal  to  the  wills  of  their  hearers : 


The  Prophets  as  Story-Tellers 


31 


Do  two  walk  together  unless  they  be  agreed? 

Does  a  lion  roar  in  the  forest  when  there  is  no  prey 

for  him? 
Does  a   young  lion   cry  out   in   his   den   unless   he  has 

taken  something? 
Does  a  bird  fall  to  the  earth  if  no  bait  is  set  for  it? 
Does    a    snare    spring    up    from    the    ground    without 

catching   anything? 
Can  a  trumpet  be  blown  in  a  city  and  the  people  not 

tremble  ? 
Can    a    calamity   befall    a    city    and   Jehovah    not   have 

caused  it?     (Amos  3.  3-6.) 

Frequently,     however,     the     appeal     was    not    Exhortations 
through  the  intellect  but  through  the  feelings  of 
the  people,  as,  for  example,  in  Jeremiah's  won- 
derful exhortations : 

Return,  O  apostate  sons,  and  I  will  heal  your  apostasy. 

If  thou  wilt  return,  O  Israel,  thou  mayest  return  to  me, 
And  if  thou  wilt  put  away  thy  violence,  thou  shalt  not 

be  banished  from  my  presence. 
And  thou  shalt  swear  by  the  life  of  Jehovah,  in  truth, 

in  justice,  and  in  righteousness. 
And  in  him   shall  the  nations  bless  themselves  and  in 

him  shall  they  glory. 
For    thus    saith    Jehovah,    to    the    men    of    Judah    and 

Jerusalem  : 
Break   up   the    fallow   ground   and   do   not   sow    among 

thorns. 
Circumcise  yourselves   to  Jehovah,   and  take   away   the 

foreskins  of  your  heart.     (Jer.  3.  22a;  4.  i-4a.) 

In  powerful  lyrical  passages  Jeremiah,  in  the    Monologues 
form  of  a  monologue,  reveals  the  tempest  which 
frequently   raged   within  his  own   soul,  and  the 
deep  grief  that  the  people's  guilt  aroused  within 
the  heart  of  the  prophet: 

Oh  that  my  head  were  waters  and  mine  eyes  a  fountain 

of  tears, 
That  I  might  weep  day  and  night  for  the  slain  of  my 

people ! 


32        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

Oh   that    I    had    in    the    wilderness    a    lodging-place    of 

wandering  men, 
That  I  might  leave  my  people  and  go  from  them ! 
For  they  are  all  adulterers,  an  assembly  of  deceivers. 
And  they  bend  their  tongue  as  though  it  w^ere  their  bow. 
Falsehood  and  not  truth  prevail  in  the  land, 
For  they  proceed  from  evil  to  evil,  and  me  they  know 

not.      (Jer.  9.   1-3.) 

Dialogues  The    prophcts    also    presented    their    teaching 

with  dramatic  effectiveness  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue.  For  example,  in  Isaiah  3  the  prophet 
and  Jehovah  each  speak  in  turn,  thus  setting 
forth  the  sweeping  judgment  which  was  about  to 
overtake  the  impious  heathen.  Even  so  in  Jere- 
miah 15.  10-21  the  great  prophet  of  Anathoth 
bewails  his  lot  and  Jehovah  replies  with  words 
of  comfort  and  assurance. 

Visions  At   times  the   prophets   abandoned   the   direct 

address  and  illustrated  their  messages  by  put- 
ting them  in  the  form  of  visions.  In  this  way 
they  painted  pictures  which  were  so  vivid  that 
through  the  eye  of  the  imagination  their  hearers 
could  see  a  great  scene  spread  before  them  which 
brought  out  in  clearest  outlines  the  vital  truths 
inherent  in  the  prophets'  sermons.  The  seventh 
and  eighth  chapters  of  Amos  contain  a  series  of 
impressive  pictures  of  this  type: 

Thus  the  Lord  Jehovah  showed  me, 

And  behold,  a  basket  of  summer  fruit. 

Then  he  said,  "What  dost  thou  see,  Amos?" 

And  I  said,  "A  basket  of  summer  fruit." 

And  Jehovah  said  to  me, 

"The  end  has  come  to  my  people  Israel, 

I  will  not  again  pass  them  by."     (Amos  8.  i,  2.) 

Rhapsodies  Sometimes   in  imagination  the  prophets  rose 

above  the  petty  problems  and  sins  which  con- 


The  Prophets  as  Story-Tellers  33 

fronted  them  and  lifted  themselves  and  their 
hearers  high  above  earth  in  such  wonderful 
rhapsodies  as  are  found,  for  example,  in  the  im- 
mortal lines  of  Isaiah  40-66. 

Awake,  awake,  put  on  strength,  O  arm  of  Jehovah ; 
Awake,  as  in  the  days  of  old,  the  generations  of  ancient 

times. 
Is  it  not  thou  that  didst  cut  Rahab  m  pieces,  that  didst 

pierce  the  monster?     (Isa.  51.  9.) 


IV 


THE  TEACHING  METHODS  OF  THE 
PROPHETS 

True  teachers  that  they  were,  the  prophets 
fully  realized  that  preaching  was  in  many  ways 
an  ineffective  method  of  imparting  truth.  It  was 
the  arrow  shot  at  a  venture  which  frequently 
fell  short  of  its  mark.  In  a  significant  passage 
found  in  the  eighth  chapter  of  his  prophecies, 
Isaiah  voices  his  conviction  that  his  preaching 
had  been  largely  in  vain.  The  background  was 
the  great  crisis  of  734  B.  C,  when  he  had  ap- 
pealed in  turn  to  king  and  people  and  had  met 
only  with  rebuff.  Then  we  hear  him  saying  to 
himself:  "Binding  up  the  admonition  and  seal- 
ing up  the  instruction  among  my  disciples,  I  will 
wait  for  Jehovah"  (Isa.  8.  16,  17a).  This  signifi- 
cant passage  reveals  the  fact  that  the  great 
prophets  gathered  about  them  groups  of  disciples 
upon  whose  open  minds  they  stamped  their  mes- 
sage and  to  whom  they  intrusted  its  preservation. 
Experience  had  taught  the  prophets  the  value  of 
the  personal,  intimate  touch,  of  the  closer  inter- 
change of  question  and  answer,  and  of  the  in- 
carnation of  the  teacher's  aims,  ideals,  teachings, 
and  zeal  in  the  life  of  the  disciple. 

To  this  method  of  teaching  is  largely  due  not 
only  the  preservation  of  the  messages  of  the 
earlier  prophets,  but  their  influence  upon  their 
own,  and  especially  upon  succeeding  generations. 
By  most  of  their  contemporaries  the  prophets 
34 


Teaching  Methods  of  the  Prophets  35 

were  persecuted  and  their  messages  spurned.  It 
was  onh'  as  their  teachings  sank  into  the  minds 
of  a  few  earnest  hearers,  Hke  Jeremiah's  faithful 
disciple  Barak,  that  they  were  transmitted  and 
became  effective  in  the  life  and  thought  of  the 
many.  This  important  truth  is  well  illustrated 
in  the  experience  of  Isaiah.  .  The  hope  which  he 
placed  in  his  disciples  was  not  disappointed. 
Even  though  the  reactionary  rule  of  Manasseh 
overthrew  the  work  of  the  great  prophets  of  the 
Assyrian  period,  their  teachings  survived  in  the 
minds  and  lives  of  the  few  to  burst  again  into  a 
flame  which  swept  throughout  Judah  under  the 
leadership  of  Josiah  and  the  men  who  rallied 
about  him.  The  book  of  Deuteronomy  is  the 
record  of  the  fact  that  the  great  principles  of 
these  earlier  prophets,  at  last  embodied  in  de- 
tailed laws,  became  the  guiding  force  in  the 
thought  and  life  of  later  generations. 

In  their  zeal  to  appeal  by  every  possible  means  Names 
to  the  men  of  their  nation  the  prophets  often  of  children 
resorted  to  what  might  be  called,  were  they  not 
so  intensely  in  earnest,  sensational  methods. 
Thus  Hosea  gave  to  his  children  names  which 
suggested  the  essence  of  his  teaching,  and  were 
calculated  to  arouse  curiosity  and  questions 
which  would  open  the  mind  of  the  people  still 
further  for  the  understanding  and  acceptance  of 
his  doctrines.  Lo-ruhamah  (Unpitied)  was  a 
grim  name  to  give  to  a  baby  girl,  but  it  was  richly 
suggestive,  as  Hosea  interpreted  it,  of  the  divine 
judgment  awaiting  guilty  Israel.  Similarly  the 
name  Shear-jashub  (A  remnant  shall  return), 
which  Isaiah  gave  to  his  little  boy,  suggested  not 


36        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

only  the  distant  hope  of  restoration,  but  also  the 
coming  conquest  and  exile  which  awaited  cor- 
rupt, defiant  Judah.  With  the  same  earnest  zeal 
Isaiah  gave  the  name  Maher-shalal-hash-baz 
(Spoil  speedeth,  prey  hasteth)  to  another  child. 
He  also  wrote  it  on  a  tablet,  setting  it  up  in  the 
temple  before  the  eyes  of  the  people  that  they 
might  never  forget  that  spoil  was  speeding  and 
prey  was  hasting,  as  Assyria,  the  dread  agent  of 
Jehovah,  was  drawing  nearer  and  nearer  to  their 
borders. 
Object  Lessons  In  teaching  the  child  nation,  the  prophets  also 

appreciated  the  great  value  of  object  lessons. 
In  the  earlier  days  Ahijah,  the  prophet,  tore 
his  garment  into  twelve  pieces,  giving  ten  to 
Jeroboam  as  a  suggestion  of  the  honors 
which  awaited  the  young  adventurer  in  the  great 
crisis  that  was  approaching.  To  make  clear  to 
his  countrymen  that  captivity  would  surely 
overtake  them  if  they  persisted  in  rebelling 
against  Assyria,  Isaiah  went  barefooted  about 
the  streets  of  Jerusalem  for  three  years,  through 
summer  and  winter,  in  the  garb  of.  a  captive. 
Later,  to  prevent  a  similar  disastrous  rebellion 
against  the  Babylonian  rule,  Jeremiah  appeared 
in  public  with  a  wooden  yoke  about  his  neck, 
thus  symbolizing  the  yoke  of  Nebuchadrezzar. 
When  his  rival,  Hananiah,  broke  the  wooden 
yoke  Jeremiah  forged  one  of  iron,  telling  the 
people  in  this  graphic  way  that  there  was  no 
escape  from  the  rule  of  the  Babylonian  con- 
queror. At  another  time  he  took  the  elders  of 
Jerusalem  one  day  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem, 
and  in  their  presence  shattered  in  pieces  upon  a 


of  Dramatic 
Illustrations 


Teaching  Methods  of  the  Prophets  37 

great  rock  an  earthen  vessel  as  a  symbol  of  the 
way  in  which  guilty  Judah  should  be  broken. 
On  another  occasion  he  brought  the  Rechabites, 
whose  loyalty  to  the  commands  of  their  ancestor, 
Jonadab,  was  well  known,  into  the  temple  and 
offered  them  wine,  which  they,  of  course,  re- 
fused. On  the  basis  of  this  signal  example  of 
the  obedience  to  the  commands  of  a  human  an- 
cestor, the  prophet  turned  to  denounce  the  people 
for  their  infidelity  to  Jehovah's  divine  commands. 

Brought  up  under  the  shadow  of  the  temple  Ezekiei's  use 
and  accustomed  to  the  use  of  symbols,  Ezekiel 
surpassed  all  the  earlier  prophets  in  his  use  of 
dramatic  object  lessons.  Thus,  for  example,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  Jews  of  distant  Jerusalem 
from  again  rebelling  against  Nebuchadrezzar, 
the  prophet,  in  the  plastic  clay,  drew  a  plan  of 
Jerusalem  in  a  state  of  siege  and  before  the  eyes 
of  his  fellow  exiles  portrayed  the  inevitable  con- 
sequences of  rebellion.  On  another  occasion  he 
cut  off  his  hair  and  scattered  part  to  the  winds. 
Another  part  he  smote  with  a  sword ;  then, 
gathering  a  very  small  portion,  he  declared  that 
this  represented  the  scattered  few  of  his  country- 
men who  should  survive  the  consequences  of 
their  rash  and  guilty  policy.  On  another  occa- 
sion, dragging  out  his  household  goods,  he  dug 
in  hot  haste  through  the  soft  clay  wall  which 
encircled  the  Jewish  colony  in  their  exile  home 
in  lower  Babylonia ;  then,  carrying  his  posses- 
sions through  the  breach  thus  made,  he  aroused 
in  superlative  measure  the  curiosity  of  his  people. 
In  the  soil  thus  thoroughly  prepared  he  sowed 
the  seeds  of  earnest  warning  and  counsel  which 


38        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

he  hoped  would  bear  fruit  in  a  saner  attitude  to- 
ward the  pohtical  problem  upon  whose  solution 
depended  the  fate  of  Jerusalem  and  Judah.  At  a 
later  time  Zechariah,  another  priest-prophet,  il- 
lustrated the  strong  hope  within  him  that  Zerub- 
babel,  the  scion  of  the  house  of  David,  would 
again  be  raised  to  the  kingship  by  giving  com- 
mand that  a  crown  be  prepared  and  laid  aside 
imtil  the  opportune  moment  should  arrive  when 
the  Jewish  community  would  arise  and  reassert 
its  independence. 
Written  Tracts  It  was  inevitable  that  in  time  the  prophets 
and  Epistles  should  put  their  messages  in  v/ritten  form.  Amos 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  take  this  step. 
That  which  influenced  him  was  probably  the 
fact  that  he  was  prevented  by  Amaziah,  the  priest 
of  Bethel,  from  speaking  in  public  to  the  men  of 
northern  Israel.  The  earlier  prophets  appear, 
like  Paul  of  a  later  day,  to  have  regarded  writ- 
ing as  an  inferior  substitute  for  the  direct  per- 
sonal address.  Most  of  the  preexilic  prophets 
seem  to  have  given  little  attention  to  the  col- 
lection of  their  prophecies.  As  in  the  case  of 
Jeremiah,  the  preservation  of  their  sermons  in 
writing  is  due  to  the  work  of  their  disciples  to 
whom  they  committed  their  message.  At  first 
these  prophetic  writings  were  cherished  and  ap- 
predated  by  a  limited  few  within  the  nation. 
When  the  exile,  however,  scattered  the  different 
survivors  of  the  race  throughout  the  then  known 
world,  the  importance  of  the  written  message  be- 
came paramount.  Henceforth  the  prophets  de- 
pended almost  entirely  upon  this  method  of  teach- 
ing. 


Teaching  Methods  of  the  Prophets  39 


Apocalypses 


As  the  prestige  of  the  prophets  waned,  it  be- 
came more  and  more  the  custom  for  them  to 
issue  their  predictions  anonymously.  The  pre- 
dictive element  also  became  much  more  promi- 
nent. The  prophets  again  became  seers.  With 
this  loss  of  the  personal  touch  and  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  teaching  method,  prophecy  began  to 
lose  its  vital  touch  with  life  and  to  become  more 
vague  and  therefore  less  direct.  Their  teachings 
were  presented  in  symbolic  form.  The  apocalypse 
took  the  place  of  the  direct,  simple  address.  The 
appeal  was  to  the  imagination  rather  than  to 
the  will  of  men,  and  with  this  decline  from  its 
earlier  and  nobler  traditions  Hebrew  prophecy 
lost  its  hold  upon  the  lives  of  men.  The  result 
was  that  the  prophet  almost  entirely  disappeared, 
and  his  place  was  filled  by  the  priest  and  the  sage. 

In  the  light  especially  of  the  study  of  the  intense  Moral 
great  preexilic  prophets,  it  is  possible  briefly  to  ^^''"^_^_*_"^^^^  °^ 
summarize  the  prophetic  method.  Its  first  char- 
acteristic was  an  intense  moral  earnestness  be- 
gotten by  profound  personal  conviction.  The 
prophets  spoke  not  dogmatically,  but  out  of  the 
depths  of  their  own  and  their  nation's  experience. 
Their  one  ambition  was  to  reach  the  wills  and 
transform  the  lives  of  their  contemporaries. 
From  beginning  to  end,  the  true  prophets  were 
also  characterized  by  their  complete  devotion  to 
their  task.  The  lives  of  men  like  Hosea  and 
Jeremiah  were  one  long  martyrdom,  and  yet  they 
never  flinched  or  turned  back,  however  great  the 
danger,  however  great  the  cost.  Fearlessly  they 
went  about  their  God-given  task,  refusing  to 
compromise  their  ideals. 


the  Prophets 


40  Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

Their  At  the  same  time  the  prophets  were  practical 

Superlative  Tact  [y^  their  mcthods.  They  even  sought  as  far  as 
possible  to  utilize  existing-  men  and  measures. 
Confronted  by  hostile  audiences,  they  used  super- 
lative tact  in  gaining  the  public  ear.  Thus, 
Amos,  confronted  as  he  was  by  the  corrupt  and 
cruel  rulers  of  northern  Israel  at  a  great  feast 
day  in  the  royal  sanctuary  at  Bethel,  not  only 
disarmed  all  opposition,  but  gained  with  mar- 
velous skill  and  effectiveness  a  unanimous  assent 
to  the  fundamental  principles  which  he  was  seek- 
ing to  establish.  Instead  of  beginning  with  an 
attack  upon  northern  Israel,  he  pointed  out  the 
crimes  and  brutality  of  their  hated  foes,  and  the 
certain  judgment  that  Jehovah  would  bring  upon 
these  guilty  peoples.  While  his  hearers  were 
still  rejoicing  over  the  just  judgment  that  was 
about  to  overtake  the  heathen,  like  a  flash  the 
prophet  set  before  them  the  even  greater  crimes 
that  were  perpetrated  by  them  against  Jehovah's 
own  people,  and  pointed  out,  with  resistless  logic, 
the  inevitable  judgments  that  awaited  them. 
Similarly  the  young  prophet  Isaiah  came  before 
the  rich  vineyard  owners  of  Jerusalem  with  the 
story  of  a  friend  who  carefully  prepared  and 
planted  a  vineyard.  The  story  was  cast  in  the 
fascinating  form  of  a  vineyard  song.  Even  as 
Isaiah's  hearers,  charmed  by  the  story,  were  nod- 
ding assent  to  the  justice  of  destroying  this  vine- 
yard which  bore  only  bad  fruit,  he  suddenly 
applied  the  parable  to  them,  for  they  were  Je- 
hovah's carefully  nurtured  vineyard.  With 
courage  equaled  only  by  his  superlative  tact,  he 
pointed  out  the  crimes  of  land  monopoly,  intern- 


Teaching  Methods  of  the  Prophets  4 1 


Prophets 


perance,  skepticism,  and  disregard  of  public  re- 
sponsibility, the  worthless  fruits  which  Judah 
was  bringing  forth. 

Characteristic  of  the  prophets  are  their  mar-  /Re'sum/ of  the 
velous  simplicity  and  directness,  their  dramatic  Work  oj  the 
emphasis  on  essentials,  and  their  close,  intelligent 
touch  with  the  conditions  and  problems  of  their 
day.  They  were  the  heralds  of  divine  truth  who 
spoke  not  so  much  to  the  individual  as  to  the 
nation,  and  through  their  nation  to  all  mankind. 
They  were  the  watchmen  on  the  mountain  tops 
whose  keen  eyes  detected  the  significant  move- 
ments within  their  nation  and  in  the  larger  world 
without.  With  eyes  open  to  the  divine  truth, 
they  grasped  the  eternal  principles  which  are  the 
basis  of  all  political,  social,  and  moral  life. 
Possessed  of  these  great  facts  and  principles, 
with  equal  devotion  and  skill  and  tact,  they  im- 
pressed them  upon  the  consciousness  of  their 
own  and  succeeding  generations.  These  men 
were  the  great  pioneers  in  the  field  of  moral  and 
religious  truth  w^hose  teachings  make  the  Old 
Testament  unique,  for  they  molded  the  life  of 
ancient  Israel,  and  gave  to  the  other  teachers  of 
their  race  that  which  is  the  essence  of  their  mes- 
sage. Above  all,  they,  like  John  the  Baptist, 
were  forerunners,  who  prepared  the  way  for  that 
larger  and  fuller  interpretation  of  life  and  re- 
ligion proclaimed  by  the  Great  Prophet  of 
Nazareth, 


V 


Role  of  the 
Early  Priests 


Origin  of  the 

Levitical 

Priesthood 


THE  DUTIES  AND  AIMS  OF  THE  PRIESTS 

The  word  ''priest"  ordinarily  calls  up  a  vision 
of  a  long-robed  official  presenting  a  sacrifice  at 
the  ancient  altar.  This,  however,  is  only  an  im- 
perfect picture  of  the  real  functions  of  the  pre- 
exilic  Hebrew  priests.  The  early  history  of  the 
order  is  veiled  in  much  obscurity.  The  ancient 
story  preserved  in  Judges  i8  throws  some  light 
upon  this  early  history.  It  tells  us  of  a  certain 
Ephraimite  by  the  name  of  Micah  who  reared  a 
family  shrine  and  put  it  in  charge  of  his  oldest 
son.  When  his  son  tired  of  the  task,  Micah 
secured  a  wandering  Levite,  who  took  charge  of 
the  sanctuary  and  in  return  for  his  services  re- 
ceived a  definite  salary.  Later  the  Levite  was 
consulted  by  the  Danite  spies  when  they  sought 
a  home  far  in  the  north.  Subsequently  he  was 
carried  off  to  the  north  by  them,  together  with 
the  paraphernalia  of  the  ancient  shrine.  There 
he  and  his.  descendants  presided  over  the  temple 
at  Dan,  which,  after  the  division  of  the  Hebrew 
empire,  became  one  of  the  two  royal  sanctuaries 
of  the  north. 

In  connection  with  this  narrative  the  significant 
statement  is  made  that  this  Levite  was  a  de- 
scendant of  Moses.  In  the  narratives  of  Genesis 
34  and  Exodus  :>y2.  25-29  the  Levites  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  zeal  in  preserving  the  purity 
of  Jehovah's  religion.  Their  zeal  appears  to  have 
called  down  upon  them  a  signal  disaster  at  the 
42 


Duties  and  Aims  of  the  Priests  43 

hands  of  the  ancient  Canaanite  inhabitants  of  the 
land.  This  event  is  the  most  satisfactory  ex- 
planation of  the  reason  why  the  tribe  of  Levi,  as 
in  the  days  of  the  Judges,  was  only  a  remnant 
and  had  no  permanent  place  of  abode.  The  facts 
that  Moses  belonged  to  this  tribe  and  that  it  had 
no  definite  place  of  abode  perhaps  explain  why 
to  the  sons  of  Levi  was  intrusted  the  care  of 
the  local  sanctuaries  from  the  days  of  the  settle- 
ment onward. 

Even  though  many  of  the  descendants  of  the  Broader  content 
early  Canaanites  probably  remained  at  these  an-  °so^nof  L^vi" 
cient  sanctuaries,  all  ministering  priests  were 
apparently  in  time  designated  by  the  common 
term  soji  of  Levi,  In  the  book  of  Deuteronomy 
the  terms  priest  and  so]i  of  Levi  are  interchange- 
able. Like  the  kindred  terms  sons  of  the  proph- 
ets and  sons  of  the  Held,  or  the  modern  Arab  son 
of  the  zi'ay  (used  to  describe  a  traveler),  the 
term  son  of  Levi  did  not  necessarily  indicate 
lineal  descent  from  a  common  ancestor,  but 
rather  described  the  class  of  officials  who  were 
associated  with  the  different  sanctuaries  through- 
out Israel. 

The  centralization  of  all  worship  in  Jerusalem  its  Later 
in  the  days  of  Josiah,  and  the  abolition  of  all 
other  sanctuaries,  doubtless  gave  rise  to  that 
distinction  which  was  first  made  by  Ezekiel  be- 
tween the  priests  and  the  Levites.  With  him  the 
priests  are  the  descendants  of  the  old  Jerusalem 
priesthood,  while  the  Levites  are  the  descendants 
of  those  who  cared  for  the  ancient  sanctuaries 
outside  Jerusalem.  By  Ezekiel,  and  still  further 
by  the  later  priestly  writers,  the  Levites  are  as- 


Limitations 


The  Fourfold 
Duties  of  the 
Priests 


Greater 
Prominence  of 
the  Teaching 
Function 


44         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

signed  to  a  secondary  and  menial  position  and 
the  priests,  the  sons  of  Aaron,  are  alone  regarded 
as  fitted  to  perform  the  more  important  acts  of 
sacrifice. 

The  distinction  between  the  duties  and  aims  of 
the  preexilic  and  post-exilic  priests  is,  therefore, 
clearly  marked.  In  the  light  of  the  oldest  refer- 
ences, it  is  evident  that  the  preexilic  priests  were 
more  than  mere  custodians  of  the  temples  and 
ministers  at  the  altar.  In  an  obscure  but  sug- 
gestive passage  found  among  the  songs  pre- 
served in  Deuteronomy  33,  the  fourfold  func- 
tions of  these  early  priests  are  clearly  stated: 

Thy  Tlnimmim  and  thy  Urim  are  for  the  Holy  One, 

They  show  Jacob  thy  judgments, 

And  Israel  thy  instruction  ; 

They  bring  to  thy  nostrils  the  savor  of  sacrifice, 

And  whole  burnt  offering  to  thine  altar. 

This  passage  indicates  that,  in  the  first  place, 
they  were  the  guardians  of  the  oracle ;  secondly, 
that  they  acted  as  judges,  teaching  the  people  by 
means  of  the  decisions  whicli  they  rendered ; 
thirdly,  that  they  were  the  ordinary  teachers  of 
the  people;  and,  finally,  that  they  directed  the 
presentation  of  the  sacrifices  at  the  altar. 

Of  these  four  functions,  that  of  teaching  was, 
in  the  days  before  the  exile,  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant and  significant.  With  this  thought  in 
mind  Micah  (3.  11)  complains  that  the  "priests 
teach  for  hire,"  implying  that  their  chief  duty 
was  to  teach,  but  that  they  were  under  obligation 
to  do  so  freely  rather  than  for  mercenary  mo- 
tives. Hosea,  who  was  the  first  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment prophets  to  appreciate  fully  the  importance 


Duties  and  Aims  of  the  Priests  45 

of  teaching-  as  a  means  of  developing  the  re- 
hgious  Ufe  and  character  of  the  race,  declares 
that  Jehovah  will  destroy  both  priest  and  people 
because  the  priests  have  been  faithless  to  their 
task  as  teachers.  In  ]\Ialachi  2.  6,  7  is  found  the 
clearest  portrait  extant  of  the  early  priest: 

True  instruction  was  in  his  mouth. 

And  unrighteousness  was  not  found  in  his  lips ; 

He   walked   with   me   in  peace  and   uprightness. 

And  turned  many  from  iniquity. 

For  the  priest's  lips  should  keep  knowledge. 

And  men  should  seek  the  law  at  his  mouth, 

For  he  is  the  messenger  of  Jehovah  of  hosts. 

It  was  not  until  after  the  exile  that  the  priests  gave 
up  their  important  teaching  functions,  and  became 
simply  custodians  of  the  oral  traditions,  guardians 
of  the  sanctuary,  and  ministers  at  the  altar. 

In  the  preexilic  Hebrew  life  the  priests  exer-  importance  of 
cised  an  exceedingly  important  influence  in  de- 
veloping the  life  of  the  nation.  Their  connection 
with  the  sanctuaries  gave  them  a  position  of 
great  authority  in  the  community.  They  were 
the  class  who  taught  to  the  masses  the  great 
principles  of  the  prophets  and  by  word  and 
symbol  made  them  clear,  intelligible,  and  ap- 
plicable to  the  ordinary  life  of  the  people.  The 
original  text  of  Jeremiah  5.  31  makes  this  rela- 
tion very  clear,  although  the  words  are  those  of 
denunciation : 

The  prophets  prophesy  falsely, 

And  the  priests  teach  according  to  their  directions. 

The  priests  spoke  to  the  individual  rather  than  to 
the  nation,  and  their  authority  was  acknowledged 
by  kings  and  people.    Their  opportunities  for  in- 


Their  Influence 


46        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

fiueiicing  the  masses  were,  therefore,  exceedingly 
great,  but  with  these  opportunities  came  equally 
strong  temptations.  The  prophets  often  com- 
plained that  some  of  these  priests  yielded  to  mer- 
cenary motives  and  thus  betrayed  their  high 
office.  There  is  reason  to  believe,  however,  that 
the  great  majority  of  the  early  priests  were  faith- 
ful to  their  task.  Abiathar,  in  the  days  of  David, 
Jehoiada,  in  the  days  of  Joash,  and  Hilkiah, 
under  the  rule  of  Josiah,  are  a  few  of  the  strong 
men  who  by  their  character  and  personality  ex- 
alted the  office  of  the  priest.  Inasmuch  as  the 
people  came  to  the  priests  rather  than  the  priests 
to  the  people,  they  stood  in  a  unique  relation  to 
those  whom  they  taught.  Their  contact  with 
the  people  was  also  closer  and  more  continuous 
than  that  of  the  prophets.  Without  these  teach- 
ers of  the  common  people  it  is  clear  that  the 
great  principles  enunciated  by  the  prophets 
would  in  a  majority  of  cases  have  failed  to  reach 
their  true  goal. 
Aimed  to  Guard  Briefly  fomiulatcd,  the  aim  of  the  early  priests 
Sacred  ^^.^s,  first,  to  guard  the  sanctuaries  and  to  pre- 

serve the  religious  traditions  and  institutions 
which  gathered  about  these  ancient  shrines. 
Doubtless  through  them  originally  many  of 
Israel's  earliest  traditions  were  handed  down, 
being  retold  from  year  to  year  at  the  great  an- 
nual festivals,  until,  in  tim^e,  they  were  collected 
by  the  prophetic  and  priestly  historians  and  com- 
mitted to  writing.  While  the  temple  still  stood, 
the  priests  also  transmitted  to  their  sons  the  de- 
tailed ritualistic  laws  which  governed  the  cere- 
monial life  of  the  sanctuary. 


Institutions 


Duties  and  Aims  of  the  Priests  47 

The  second  task  of  the  priests  was  to  teach  To  Teach  People 
the  people  how  rightly  to  worship.  The  evi-  How  to  worship 
dence,  on  the  whole,  indicates  that  the  early 
priests  rarely  offered  sacrifice.  Even  the  com- 
paratively late  law  of  Deuteronomy  provides  that 
each  man  shall  bring  his  offering  to  the  sanctu- 
ary, slay  it  with  his  own  hand,  prepare  it  for  the 
altar,  and  then  participate  in  the  family  feast 
which  he  was  to  share  with  his  household  and 
dependents.  The  task  of  the  priest  appears  to 
have  been  to  instruct  the  people  how  to  perform 
the  sacrifice,  and  in  general  to  guide  them  in  the 
details  of  the  ritual  and  in  the  different  forms  of 
worship.  Ezekiel  charges  the  priests  of  his  day 
with  having  neglected  this  important  duty :  "Her 
priests  have  done  violence  to  my  law,  and  have 
profaned  my  holy  things  ;  they  have  made  no  dis- 
tinction between  the  holy  and  the  common, 
neither  have  they  caused  men  to  discern  between 
the  unclean  and  the  clean,  and  have  hid  their  eyes 
from  my  sabbaths,  and  I  am  profaned  among 
them"  (Ezek.  22.  26). 

The  third  aim  of  the  priests  was  to  teach  the  To  Teach  People 
people  how  to  live  rightly  and  to  perform  their  How  to  Live 
duties  one  to  another.  This  led  the  priests  to 
apply  the  principles  not  only  of  ceremonial  but 
of  civil  law  to  the  individual  needs  and  problems 
of  the  people  who  resorted  to  them.  It  made 
them  teachers  of  the  individual  as  well  as  of  the 
nation,  and  led  them,  like  the  prophets,  to  define 
religion  in  terms  not  only  of  the  ritual  but  of  life, 
of  love,  and  of  service.  Thus,  in  their  early  de- 
velopment, the  aims  of  the  priests  and  prophets 
were  in  many  ways  closely  parallel.    Both  appear 


48       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

to  have  developed  from  the  ancient  Arabic  kahin. 
The  same  common  Semitic  root  is  retained  in 
the  Hebrew  term  kohen,  which  is  the  common 
designation  of  the  priests.  The  word  means 
''minister."  While  the  prophets  broke  away  from 
the  local  shrines  and  the  customs  which  had 
gathered  about  them  and  devoted  themselves  to 
large  questions  of  political,  social,  national,  and 
later  of  universal  import,  the  priests  ever  re- 
tained their  close  connection  with  the  sanctuaries 
and  devoted  their  attention  to  the  details  of  wor- 
ship and  personal  conduct. 


VI 

THE  TEACHING  METHODS  OF  THE  PRIESTS 

Throughout  their  history  the  priests  re-  useoftne 
mained  preeminently  the  guardians  of  the  divine  Oracle 
oracles.'  This  appears  to  have  been  the  chief 
function  of  the  son  of  Levi  employed  by  Micah 
in  the  ancient  story  of  Judges  17  and  18.  The 
early  kings,  like  Saul  and  David,  always  kept 
within  their  court  priests  to  whom  they  turned 
for  an  answer  in  the  name  of  Jehovah  before  go- 
ing out  to  battle.  Thus,  according  to  i  Samuel 
23.  8-12:  "Saul  summoned  all  the  people  of  war 
to  go  down  to  Keilah  to  besiege  David  and  his 
men.  And  when  David  knew  that  Saul  was  de- 
vising evil  against  him  he  said  to  Abiathar  the 
priest,  Bring  here  the  ephod.  And  David  said,  O 
Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel,  thy  servant  hath 
surely  heard  that  Saul  is  seeking  to  come  to 
Keilah  to  destroy  the  city  because  of  me.  Will 
Saul  come  down,  as  thy  servant  hath  heard?  O 
Jehovah,  God  of  Israel,  I  beseech  thee,  tell  thy 
servant.  And  Jehovah  said.  He  will  come  down. 
Then  David  said,  Will  the  men  of  Keilah  deliver 
me  and  my  men  into  the  hand  of  Saul?  And 
Jehovah  said.  They  will  deliver  thee  up."  Again, 
according  to  i  Samuel  30.  7,  8:  ''David  said  to 
Abiathar  the  priest,  the  son  of  Ahimelech,  Bring 
here  to  me  the  ephod.  And  Abiathar  brought 
thither  the  ephod  to  David.  And  David  inquired 
of  Jehovah,  saying, 

49 


50       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

Shall  I  pursue  this  marauding  band? 
Shall  I  overtake  them  ? 

And  he  answered  him, 

Pursue, 

For  thou  shalt  surely  overtake, 

And  thou  shalt  surely  rescue." 

Nature  of  the  From  tlicsc  and  other  references  it  seems  clear 

^'■^''^^  that  the  question  propounded  to  the  priest  was  put 

in  a  form  so  that  it  could  be  answered  either  by 
*'Yes"  or  "No."  Fortunately,  the  superior  Greek 
text  of  I  Samuel  14.  4ib-42a  throws  clear  Hght 
upon  the  nature  of  these  ancient  oracles:  "If  the 
guilt  be  in  me  or  in  Jonathan  my  son,  Jehovah, 
God  of  Israel,  give  Urim :  but  if  the  guilt  is  in 
my  people  Israel,  give  Thummim.  Then  Jona- 
than and  Said  were  taken  and  the  people  escaped. 
And  Saul  said.  Cast  the  lot  between  me  and 
Jonathan  my  son.  He  whom  Jehovah  shall  take, 
must  die."  From  this  passage  it  is  clear  that  the 
ancient  oracle  consisted  of  some  form  of  sacred 
lot.  Apparently  the  ephod  was  a  pouch  in  the 
garment  of  the  priest  in  which  were  probably 
found  two  stones,  the  one  marked  Urim  (which 
means  lights),  the  other  Thummim  (which 
means  perfections).  The  question  was  answered 
according  as  one  or  the  other  of  these  sacred 
stones  or  tablets  was  drawn  forth.  This  was 
evidently  the  usual  method  of  appealing  to  Je- 
hovah by  means  of  the  lot.  Even  so  to-day  the 
Moravians  in  the  South  use  the  lot  in  deciding 
such  serious  questions  as  marriage  or  the  choice 
of  a  bishop. 

In  interpreting  the  significance  of  the  lot  the 
priests    were    able    to    exert   a    great    influence. 


Teaching  Methods  of  the  Priests  5  ' 

From  Haggai  2.  11-13  it  is  clear  that  in  later  opportunity  for 
times  the  torah  or  decision  depended  upon  the  influencing  the 
judgment  of  the  priests :  "Thus  saith  Jehovah  of 
hosts:  Ask  of  the  priests  a  decision,  saying.  If 
one  bear  holy  flesh  in  the  skirt  of  his  garment, 
and  with  his  skirt  touch  bread,  or  pottage,  or 
wine,  or  oil,  or  any  food,  shall  it  become  holy? 
And  the  priests  answered  and  said,  No.  Then 
said  Haggai,  If  one  that  is  unclean  by  reason  of 
a  dead  body  touch  any  of  these  shall  it  be  un- 
clean? And  the  priests  answered  and  said.  It 
shall  be  unclean."  Thus  the  popular  belief  in 
the  authority  of  the  oracle  gave  to  the  priests  rare 
opportunities  for  guiding  the  life  of  the  people. 

Another  exceedingly  important  way  in  which  Judicial 
the  priests  taught  the  people  was  by  means  of  the 
judicial  decisions  which  they  were  called  upon  to 
render.  In  the  classic  passage  of  Exodus  18. 
13-16  light  is  thrown  on  the  fundamental  nature 
of  Moses's  earlier  work  and  on  his  vital  re- 
lation to  Israel's  later  legislation :  "Now  on  the 
next  day  Moses  sat  as  judge  to  decide  cases  for 
the  people,  and  the  people  stood  about  Moses 
from  morning  until  evening.  But  when  jMoses's 
father-in-law  saw  all  that  he  was  doing  for  the 
people,  he  said.  What  is  this  thing  that  you  are 
doing  for  the  people?  Why  are  you  sitting  all 
alone  while  all  the  people  stand  about  you  from 
morning  until  evening?  And  Moses  answered 
his  father-in-law.  Because  the  people  keep  com- 
ing to  me  to  inquire  of  God.  Whenever  they 
have  a  matter  of  dispute,  they  come  to  me  that 
I  may  decide  which  of  the  two  is  right  and  make 
known  the  statutes  of  God  and  his  decisions." 


52        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Moses's 
Relation  to  the 
Laws 


Judicial 

Functions  of  the 
Priests 


In  deciding  these  difficult  questions  which 
presented  new  problems  and  involved  new  prin- 
ciples, jMoses  w^as  thus  able  to  establish  prece- 
dents which  became  the  basis  of  definite  laws. 
Whatever  is  the  final  conclusion  regarding  the 
date  at  which  the  different  Old  Testament  laws 
were  committed  to  writing,  they  will  always  be 
recognized  as  truly  Mosaic.  Standing  as  Moses 
did  at  the  beginning  of  Israel's  national  life,  he 
left  his  mighty  impress  upon  all  its  laws  and  in- 
stitutions.  As  the  first  great  prophet,  priest,  and 
judge,  he  taught  the  Hebrew  race  by  word  of 
mouth,  by  object  lessons,  and  by  just  decisions, 
and  thus  established  those  fundamental  principles 
which  are  the  basis  of  Israel's  legal  system. 
Later  Jewish  tradition,  therefore,  is  right  in 
ascribing  to  Moses  a  place  of  commanding  au- 
thority in  Israel's  legislation. 

According  to  Deuteronomy  17.  8,  9  all  diffi- 
cult cases  were  referred  to  the  priests  as  a  court 
of  final  appeal :  ''If  a  case  involving  bloodshed  or 
conflicting  claims  or  the  plague  of  leprosy — sub- 
jects of  dispute  within  thine  own  city — be  too 
difficult  for  thee  to  decide,  then  thou  shalt  set  out 
and  go  up  to  the  place  which  Jehovah  thy  God 
shall  choose ;  and  thou  shalt  come  to  the  Levitical 
priests  and  the  judge  who  shall  be  in  office  in 
those  days ;  and  thou  shalt  inquire  and  they  shall 
make  known  to  thee  the  judicial  decision."  The 
priests  were  regarded  as  Jehovah's  representa- 
tives :  "If  the  thief  be  not  found,  then  the  master 
of  the  house  shall  come  before  God  to  prove 
whether  or  not  he  hath  taken  his  neighbor's 
goods.    In  every  case  of  breach  of  trust,  whether 


Teaching  Methods  of  the  Priests  53 

it  concern  ox,  or  ass,  or  sheep,  or  clothing,  or 
any  kind  of  lost  thing  of  which  one  saith,  This  is 
it,  the  case  of  both  parties  shall  come  before 
God:  He  whom  God  shall  condemn  shall  make 
double   restitution  to  his  neighbor"    (Exod.  22. 

7-9)' 

The  opportunities  thus  offered  to  the  priests    Opportunities 
not  only  for  illustrating  the  principles  of  justice,   ^o^'thus 

u..ri  ^-  1  1  1  •       Teaching  the 

but  tor  educatmg  the  people,  cannot  be  overesti-  peopie 
mated.  As  individual  problems  of  daily  life 
were  laid  before  them,  they  were  enabled  to 
study  the  needs  of  the  people,  to  apply  in  most 
practical  form  the  high  principles  proclaimed  by 
the  prophets,  and  at  the  same  time  to  lead  the 
people  to  accept  and  follow  them  in  their  own 
daily  life.  Their  position  in  the  midst  of  a  child 
nation,  whose  moral  standards  and  religious 
ideals  were  only  gradually  being  formed,  was 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  wise  and  efficient 
judge  in  charge  of  a  modern  juvenile  court. 
They  became  the  specialists  in  dealing  with  so- 
cial and  moral  ills.  They  were  able  to  heal  effec- 
tively those  disorders  which  retarded  the  natural 
and  normal  development  of  the  moral  and  re- 
ligious health  of  society.  They  were  in  position 
to  deal  directly  and  personally  with  those  who 
w^ere  a  menace  to  the  welfare  of  the  community. 
Inspired  by  a  strong  religious  impulse  and  by 
the  spirit  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  that  of  the 
judge,  it  is  obvious  that  the  faithful  priests  of 
ancient  Irsael  w^ere  exceedingly  powerful  fac- 
tors in  the  development  of  the  national  character 
and  ideals. 

The  priests,  however,  did  not  merely  admin- 


54       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

The  Catechetical   istcr  justice.     There  is  clear  and  convincing  evi- 
Method  dence  in  the  Old  Testament  laws  that  they  for- 

mulated the  essential  principles  governing  the 
relation  of  man  to  man  and  man  to  God,  and  as 
teachers  impressed  these  principles  upon  the 
consciousness  and  memory  of  the  people.  From 
Deuteronomy  27.  14,  15  it  is  also  evident  that 
they  sometimes  used  the  catechetical  method: 
"And  the  Levites  shall  answer  and  say  to  all  the 
men  of  Israel  with  a  loud  voice:  Cursed  be  the 
man  that  maketh  a  graven  or  molten  image,  an 
abomination  to  Jehovah,  the  work  of  the  hands 
of  the  craftsman,  and  setteth  it  up  in  secret.  And 
all  the  people  shall  answer  and  say.  Amen." 
Twelve  important  definite  duties  are  thus  im- 
pressed in  the  form  of  responses  upon  the  minds 
of  the  people. 

Most  students  of  the  Old  Testament  are  fa- 
miliar with  the  wonderful  prophetic  decalogue  in 
Exodus  20.  Not  all,  however,  have  discovered 
the  remaining  nine  decalogues  preserved  in 
Exodus  21-23.  Of  these,  the  first  five  decalogues 
contain  civil  and  social  laws.  The  last  four 
(probablv  originally  five)  contain  ceremonial 
and  religious  laws.  The  following  titles  are  de- 
scriptive of  the  contents  of  these  decalogues: 
Civil  Decalogues:  (i)  Rights  of  Slaves.  (2) 
Assault.  (3)  Domestic  Animals.  (4)  Respon- 
sibility for  Property.  (5)  Social  Purity.  Cere- 
monial AND  Religious:  (i)  Duty  of  Kindness. 
(2)  Justice  in  Legal  Matters.  (3)  Duties  to 
God.  (4)  Ceremonial  Duties.  Each  decalogue 
consisted  originally  of  ten  short  sentences  or 
words.    Each  law  illustrates  a  fundamental  prin- 


Teaching  Methods  of  the  Priests  55 

ciple  applicable  to  all  kindred  cases.  These  an- 
cient laws  were  doubtless  arranged  in  the  form 
of  decalogues  as  an  aid  to  the  memory.  Each 
consisted  of  two  distinct  pentads,  that  is,  two 
groups  of  five  laws.  Each  law  in  a  decalogue 
was,  therefore,  presumably  associated  with  a 
certain  finger  or  thumb  of  the  hand,  and  in  turn 
each  one  of  the  ten  decalogues  was  likewise  fixed 
in  the  memory  of  the  learner.  It  takes  little  im- 
agination, therefore,  to  see  the  faithful  priests  at 
the  annual  feasts — in  fact,  whenever  the  people 
came  up  to  sacrifice — teaching  them,  old  and 
young  alike,  these  fundamental  principles,  and 
helping  them  to  remember  by  association  with 
the  fingers  of  the  hand. 

The  decalogue  which  defines  the  duties  of  a  Typical 
witnesses  and  judges  in  legal  matters  is  typical  ^"aiogue 
of  the  group,  and  possesses  a  perennial  value  as 
well  as  interest.  The  last  law  of  the  first  pentad 
seems  unusual,  until  it  is  remembered  that  the 
witnesses  came  from  the  ranks  of  the  common 
people  and  that  therefore  their  sympathies  wxre 
with  the  poor.  The  first  law  of  the  following 
pentad,  which  deals  with  the  duties  of  the  judges 
who  were  drawn  from  the  rich  and  ruling  class, 
naturally  emphasizes  the  importance  of  regard- 
ing the  cause  of  the  poor.  The  following  is  a 
modern  interpretation  of  this  ancient  decalogue: 

First  Pentad:  Duties  of  Witnesses 

I.  Thou  shalt  not  spread  abroad  a  false  report. 
II.  Do   not   enter   into   a   conspiracy   with   a   wicked 

man  to  be  an  unrighteous  witness. 
III.  Thou  shalt  not  follow  the  majority  in  doing  what 
is  wrong. 


56         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

IV.  Thou  shalt  not  bear  testimony  in  a  case  so  as  to 

pervert  justice. 
V.  Thou  shalt  not  show  partiality  to  a  poor  man  in 
his  case. 

Second  Pentad:    Duties  of  Judges 

VI.  Thou  shalt  not  prevent  justice  being  done  to  thy 

poor  in  his  cause. 
VII.  Keep  aloof  from  every  false  matter. 
VIII.  Do  not  condemn  the  innocent  nor  him  who  hath 
a  just  cause. 
IX.  Do  not  vindicate  the  wicked. 
X.  Thou  shalt  take  no  bribe,  for  a  bribe  blindeth  the 
eyes  of  those  who  see  and  perverteth  the  cause 
of  the  righteous. 


Symbolism  of 
The  Ritual 


The  Temple 
Ritual  in  the 
Greek  Period 


The  priests  were  fully  aware  of  the  value  of 
objective  symbolism  in  teaching  a  child  nation. 
The  principles  underlying  Israel's  ceremonials 
are  those  of  the  prophets :  the  holiness  of  Jeho- 
vah, the  importance  of  loyalty  to  him,  the  defiling 
character  of  wrongdoing,  and  the  necessity  of 
public  confession.  No  one  can  read  certain  of 
the  later  psalms,  which  breathe  passionate  de- 
votion to  the  temple  ritual,  and  fail  to  appre- 
ciate how  effectively  the  priests  impressed  these 
great  principles  upon  the  minds  of  the  people. 
To  the  ordinary  citizens  the  obligations  of  the 
ritual  were  not  a  burden  but  a  joy.  In  the  faith- 
ful performance  of  them  and  in  the  sense  of  har- 
mony with  their  Divine  King  they  found  supreme 
peace  and  happiness. 

Ben  Sira  has  preserved  a  highly  colored  but 
vivid  picture  of  the  temple  ritual  in  the  later 
Greek  period.  The  occasion  was  probably  the 
service  on  the  day  of  atonement  led  by  the  high 
priest,  Simon: 


Teaching  Methods  of  the  Priests  57 

How  glorious  was  he  when  he  looked  forth   from   the 

temple, 
At  his  coming  forth  out  of  the  sanctuary ! 
As  the  mornmg  star  in  the  midst  of  a  cloud. 
As  the  full  moon  on  the  da}^  of  the  passover  feast! 
When  he   put   on   the   robe  of  glory, 
And  clothed  himself  with  the   splendid  garments. 
And  ascended  to  the  holy  altar, 
He  made  glorious  the  precincts  of  the  sanctuary. 
And  when  he   received  the   portions   from   the   priests' 

hands. 
Himself  also  standing  by  the  altar-hearth, 
His  brethren  as  a  garland  round  about  him, 
He  was  as  a  young  cedar  on  Mount  Lebanon, 
And    as    stems    of    palm    trees    they    encompassed    him 

about. 
All  the  sons  of  Aaron  in  their  glory, 
With  Jehovah's  burnt  offering  in  their  hands. 
In  the  presence  of  all  the  congregation  of  Israel, 
Until  he  had  finished  the  service  at  the  altar. 
And  the  offering  to  the  Most  High,  the  Almighty, 
He  stretched  out  his  hand  to  the  cup. 
And  poured  out  the  blood  of  the  grape  ; 
He  poured  it  out  at  the  foot  of  the  altar, 
A   sweet-smelling   savor   to   the    Most    High,    the    King 

of  all. 
Then  shouted  the  sons  of  Aaron, 
They  blew  on  the  trumpets  of  beaten  work, 
They  blew  and  sent  forth  a  mighty  blast. 
As  a  remembrance  before  the  j\Iost  High. 
Then  all  the  people  together  hasted, 
They  fell  down  with  their  faces  to  the  ground. 
To  worship  their  Lord,  the  Almighty,  God  Most  High. 
The    singers   also   praised   him   with   their   voices; 
In  the  whole  house  was  there  made  sweet  melody. 
And  the  people  besought  the  Lord  Most  High, 
In  prayer  before  him  who  is  merciful. 
Until  the  service  at  the  altar  was  ended ; 
And  his  due  had  been  rendered  to  him. 
Then  the  high  priest  went  down  and  lifted  up  his  hands, 
Over  the  whole  congregation  of  the  Israelites, 
To  give  blessing  to  the  Lord  with  his  lips. 
And  to  glory  in  his  name.     (B.  Sir.  50.  5,  6,  11-20.) 

The  priests  were   also   fully  alive  to   the   im-    ceremonial 
portance  of  teaching  through  the  eye  as  well  as    Customs 


38        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


"Written  Laws 


Traditional 
Precedents  and 
Histories 


through  the  ear.  They  appealed  effectively  to 
the  aesthetic  sense  and  to  the  spirit  of  worship 
so  strong  in  the  early  history  of  the  race.  To 
this  end  they  bound  themselves  by  certain  cere- 
monial customs,  such  as  the  acts  of  purification 
and  the  wearing  of  spotless  white  garments,  which 
illustrated  effectively  the  holiness  of  Jehovah 
and  the  requirement  that  his  people  should  be 
holy.  By  abstaining  from  certain  kinds  of  food 
and  from  all  that  was  unclean  they  became  con- 
stant object  lessons  before  the  eyes  of  the  people. 

In  time  also  tlije  priests  took  the  pen  and  col- 
lected the  laws  of  their  race  wdiich  had  been 
transmitted  from  father  to  son,  or  else  first  im- 
pressed their  teachings  upon  the  minds  of  all 
through  the  concise  decalogues,  and  then  put 
them  in  written  form.  When  the  temple  was  de- 
stroyed there  was  great  danger  that  the  cere- 
monial customs,  which  had  been  transmitted 
from  father  to  son  and  had  received  constant 
illustration  in  the  temple  ritual,  would  be  for- 
gotten. Therefore  the  priestly  scribes  recorded 
these  customs  in  written  laws,  such  as  are  found 
in  the  leg^al  sections  of  Exodus  and  Numbers 
and  especially  in  Leviticus. 

They  also  collected  the  traditional  precedents 
which,  like  the  case  law  of  other  nations,  became 
of  binding  value  in  guiding  judges  in  deciding 
similar  questions.  To  provide  an  introduction 
and  a  setting  to  Israel's  laws,  the  priests  followed 
the  example  of  the  prophets  and,  collecting  the 
current  traditions,  wrote  a  priestly  history  of 
their  race,  beginning  with  the  majestic  story  of 
the  creation,  found  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis, 


Teaching  Methods  of  the  Priests  59 

and  culminating-  in  the  accounts  of  the  great 
covenants  and  institutions  which  they  beHeved 
were  estabHshed  at  different  periods  in  their  his- 
tory. Still  later,  a  Levite  wrote  a  history  of  the 
nation  parallel  to  the  prophetic  history  found  in 
Samuel  and  Kings.  The  interest  in  Chronicles 
naturally  centers  about  the  temple  and  the  origin 
of  Israel's  religious  institutions.  Some  of  the 
later  priests,  with  the  spirit  of  the  poet,  voiced 
their  intense  appreciation  of  the  law  and  devotion 
to  it  in  the  form  of  psalms.  The  result  is  that 
a  large  portion  of  the  writings  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment come  from  Israel's  priestly  teachers. 

The  priests  of  ancient  Israel,  therefore,  antici-  Risume  of  the 
pated  many  of  the  principles  emphasized  in  Methods  of  the 
modern  education.  They  expressed  their  thought 
concretely  and  objectively.  They  appealed  to 
the  eye  and  to  the  aesthetic  sense,  as  well  as  to 
the  reason.  They  were  fully  alive  to  the  value  of 
suggestion  as  a  means  of  teaching.  In  their  use 
of  symbol  and  ceremonial  they  were  the  early 
exponents  of  the  manual  and  illustrative  method. 
They  also  put  their  vital  teachings  in  clear,  com- 
pact form,  easily  understood  by  the  people,  and 
then  impressed  them  indelibly  upon  the  popular 
mind  by  means  of  oral  decalogue,  written  law, 
and  stately  ritual. 


VII 


Background  of 
the  Work  of  the 
Sages 


Sages  in  the 
Ancient  East 


THE  HISTORY  AND  AIMS  OF  THE  WISE  MEN 
OR  SAGES 

In  the  primitive  Semitic  East  there  were  ap- 
parently no  distinct  classes  of  lawyers,  physi- 
cians, or  philosophers.  The  needs,  however, 
which  these  different  classes  to-day  conserve 
existed  in  the  past  as  in  the  present.  The  neces- 
sity for  men  to  preserve  the  stored-up  experience 
and  wisdom  of  succeeding  generations,  and  to 
impart  it  in  practical  form  to  all  who  might 
apply  to  them,  was  largely  met  by  the  ancient 
wise  men  or  sages.  For  the  sake  of  convenience 
and  effectiveness  this  wealth  of  experience  was 
ordinarily  treasured  in  the  form  of  proverbs. 

From  the  old  Egyptian  kingdom  there  comes 
a  collection  of  such  proverbs,  popularly  at- 
tributed to  Ptah-hotep  and  Kegemne,  famous 
viziers  of  their  day.  On  the  back  side  of  one  of 
the  creation  tablets  is  found  a  reference  to  a 
corresponding  class  of  wise  men  among  the 
ancient  Babylonians : 

Let  the  elder  enlighten. 

Let  the  wise,  the  learned  meditate  together; 
Let  the  father  rehearse,  make  the  son  apprehend. 
Open  the  ears  of  the  shepherd  and  the  flockmaster  (the 
king). 


First  Kings  4.  30,  in  describing  the  wisdom  of 
Solomon,    alludes    incidentally   to    the    sages    of 
other  nations,  for  it  states  that  his  wisdom  "ex- 
celled the  wisdom  of  all  the  children  of  the  East 
60 


History  and  Aims  of  the  Wise  Men         6l 

and  all  the  wisdom  of  Egypt."  The  book  of  Job 
likewise  bears  testimony  to  the  presence  of  the 
wise  among  Israel's  neighbors,  for  Job  himself 
was  of  the  land  of  Uz  and  his  friends  who  con- 
versed with  him  in  the  characteristic  language 
of  the  wisdom  school  were  Eliphaz,  the  Tema- 
nite,  Zophar,  the  Naamathite,  and  Bildad,  the 
Shuhite.  The  lands  here  described  lay  to  the 
east  of  Palestine.  Teman  was  an  Edomite  city 
famous  in  antiquity  for  its  sages. 

Among  the  Arabs,  and  especially  those  living   in  the  Modem 
far  out  in  the  desert,  many  men  noted  for  their   East 
practical    wisdom    may    still    be    found.       The 
pointed  proverb  is  to-day  constantly  and  effec- 
tively  used   in  ordinary   intercourse  throughout 
the  Semitic  world. 

It  was  in  this  favorable  atmosphere  and  to  in  Israel's 
meet  universal  human  needs  that  Israel's  sages  History 
arose.  Inasmuch  as  their  appeal  was  not  to  the 
nation  but  to  the  individual,  and  as  their  work 
was  done  quietly  and  unostentatiously,  they  do 
not  figure  prominently  in  the  records  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Only  rarely  and  incidentally  are 
they  referred  to  in  the  literature  which  comes 
from  the  earlier  periods.  In  the  post-exilic 
period,  when  their  activity  and  influence  reached 
the  zenith,  they  are  not  once  alluded  to  in  the 
historical  records.  Their  presence  and  work  is 
evinced  only  by  their  writings.  It  is  exceedingly 
difficult,  therefore,  to  reconstruct  their  history 
with  any  degree  of  assurance. 

The  earliest  traces  of  the  work  of  the  sages  are   Early  Traces  of 
found  in  the  words  of  the  popular  hero,  Samson,   wisdom 
After  finding  honey  in  the  skeleton  of  the  lion,       °"^ 


62         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

which  he  had  earher  slain,  he  propounded  at  his 
wedding  feast  the  following  riddle,  cast  in  the 
rhyme  peculiar  to  early  popular  Semitic  poetry : 

Out  of  the  eater  came  something  to  eat, 
And  out  of  the  strong  came  something  sweet. 

(Judg.  14.  14.) 

To  this  riddle  his  guests  made  answer: 

What   is   sweeter  than  honey? 
What  is  stronger  than  a  lion? 

Samson,  in  turn,  referring  to  the  way  in  which 
they  had  extracted  the  meaning  of  his  riddle 
from  him  through  the  agency  of  his  wife,  re- 
plied : 

If  with   my  heifer  you   did  not  plow, 
You  had  not  solved  my  riddle  now. 

(Judg.   14.   18.) 

Wise  Women  The    carlicst    representative    of    the    wisdom 

school  to  figure  in  Hebrew  history  was  not  a 
man  but  the  famous  wise  woman  of  Tekoa. 
According  to  2  Samuel  14.  1-20  she  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Hebrew  commander,  Joab,  to  bring 
about  a  reconciliation  between  King  David  and 
his  banished  son  Absalom.  It  is  significant  that 
she  came  from  the  little  Judean  town  which 
later  sent  forth  Amos  the  prophet,  who  was 
famous  for  his  clear,  convincing  logic  and  the 
terse,  epigrammatic  form  in  which  he  cast  his 
powerful  appeals.  By  the  use  of  a  skillfully 
prepared  story  or  parable  the  woman  influenced 
David  to  commit  himself  to  a  principle  which 
she  forthwith  urged  him  to  apply  in  the  case  of 
his  own  son.  In  a  later  period  Joab  again  won 
his  point  through  the  services  of  a  wise  woman ;  it 


History  and  Aims  of  the  Wise  Men         63 


"Wise  Men  in  the 
Days  of  David 


was  while  he  was  besieging  the  town  of  Abel,  in 
northern  Israel,  where  the  rebel  Sheba  had  taken 
refuge.  When  the  fate  of  the  city  seemed  sealed, 
because  of  the  obstinate  resistance  of  its  inhabit- 
ants, one  of  its  wise  women  came  forth  to  make 
terms  with  Joab.  When  she  had  secured  favor- 
able terms  from  the  sturdy  warrior,  "the  woman 
went  to  all  the  people  in  her  wisdom"  and  per- 
suaded them  to  cut  off  the  head  of  the  rebel  and 
thus  save  their  own  heads. 

Two  wise  men  appear  among  David's  trusted 
counselors.  The  one  was  Ahithophel,  who  cast 
his  fortunes  with  the  rebel  Absalom  and  later 
committed  suicide  when  his  counsels  were  re- 
jected. The  other  was  Hushai,  who  remained 
loyal  to  David,  and  by  his  crafty  counsel  and 
effective  acting  undermined  the  influence  of 
his  rival  Ahithophel  and  at  a  critical  moment 
saved  the  cause  of  the  king.  While  not  yet 
recognized  as  a  distinct  caste  or  order,  these 
wise  men  and  women,  even  in  the  days  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  appear  to  have  been  regarded 
as  a  class  by  themselves,  and  like  Solomon,  the 
great  representative  of  the  wise  men  of  early 
Hebrew  antiquity,  to  have  enjoyed  great  popular 
favor  and  a  far-famed  reputation.  Their  meth- 
ods were  those  of  the  later  sages,  and  are  very 
distinct  from  those  of  the  priests  and  the  proph- 
ets. It  is  exceedingly  probable  that  many  such 
wise  men  and  women  were  to  be  found  in  the 
cities  and  villages  of  early  Israel. 

By  his  contemporaries,  and  even  more  by  later   Nature  of 
generations.  King  Solomon  was  regarded  as  the   f°/.°^*^ 
most    conspicuous    representative    of    this    early 


Wisdom 


64        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


His  Relation  to 
the  Book  of 
Proverbs 


wisdom  school.  His  wisdom,  however,  was  evi- 
dently very  different  from  that  of  the  later  sages 
who  have  given  us  the  majority  of  the  proverbs 
now  found  in  the  Old  Testament.  His  wisdom 
appears  to  have  been  of  the  clever,  versatile  type 
which  might  be  more  exactly  defined  as  sagacity 
or  cunning.  The  stories  preserved  by  tradition 
to  illustrate  this  quality  reveal  a  brilliant,  clever 
mind,  like  that  of  a  keen  modern  detective,  able 
quickly  to  interpret  evidence  overlooked  by  the 
ordinary  observer.  That  he  was  lacking  in  the 
deeper  qualities  of  wisdom  is  demonstrated  by 
the  signal  follies  which  characterized  his  reign. 

The  majority  of  the  Old  Testament  proverbs 
are  written  from  the  point  of  view  of  men  of  the 
middle  class,  and  do  not  fit  in  the  mouth  of  a 
tyrannical,  splendor-loving  king,  who  was  chiefly 
famous  for  his  disregard  of  the  laws  of  the 
simple  life,  and  for  the  magnitude  of  his  harem. 
There  is,  however,  in  all  probability,  some  his- 
torical basis  for  the  statement  in  i  Kings  (4. 
32)  that  "he  spoke  three  thousand  proverbs." 
That  he  embodied  the  products  of  his  versatile 
wit  in  the  form  of  proverbs  need  not  be  doubted, 
even  though  the  tradition  in  the  present  form  is 
exceedingly  late.  The  added  statement  that  "he 
spoke  of  trees,  animals,  birds,  and  fishes,"  prob- 
ably means  that  he  used  these  as  illustrations  in 
parables,  even  as  did  the  later  wise  men.  Solo- 
mon's fame  as  a  proverb-maker  doubtless  ex- 
plains why  later  generations  were  inclined,  in 
ever-increasing  measure,  to  attribute  all  ancient 
proverbs  to  him.  In  view  of  the  well-known 
tenacity   with   which   favorite  proverbs   are   re- 


History  and  Aims  of  the  Wise  Men  65 


tained  in  the  popular  mind  and  transmitted  from 
age  to  age,  it  is  exceedingly  probable  that  cer- 
tain of  the  maxims  in  the  book  of  Proverbs  came 
originally  from  Solomon.  It  is  impossible,  how- 
ever, to  distinguish  these  from  the  many  which 
came  from  the  lips  of  later  sages,  for  the  value 
of  a  proverb  depends  upon  the  fact  that  it  em- 
bodies common  human  experience  rather  than 
upon  the  authority  of  the  one  who  first  formu- 
lated it. 

The   preexilic   prophets    refer  occasionally   to    References  to 
the  wise.     In  condemning  the  spirit  of  his  age 
Isaiah  declared: 


the  "Wise  in  the 
Days  Before  the 
Exile 


Jehovah    saith,    Because    this    people    draw    near    with 

their  mouth, 
And  honor  me    with  their  lips,  while  their  heart  is  far 

from  me, 
So  that  their  fear  of  me  is  nothing  more  than  a  precept 

taught  by  men, 
Therefore,    behold,    I    will    proceed    to    do    a    thing    so 

wonderful  and  astonishing, 
That  the  wisdom  of  their   wise  men   shall   perish,   the 

discernment    of    their    discerning    ones    shall    be 

eclipsed.      (Isa.  29.    13,    14.) 

The  reference  in  Jeremiah  to  the  teaching  of 
the  priest,  the  counsel  of  the  wise,  and  the  word 
of  the  prophet  has  already  been  quoted  (p.  10). 
Ezekiel  in  a  closely  parallel  passage  substitutes 
the  elders  for  the  wise:  ''They  shall  seek  a  vision 
of  the  prophet;  but  the  teaching  shall  perish 
from  the  priest,  and  counsel  from  the  elders." 
The  book  of  Job  also  contains  many  references 
to  the  accumulated  wisdom  which  the  wise  men 
have  transmitted  from  their  fathers.  The  pres- 
ence of  proverbs  and  parables  in  the  preexilic 
literature  gives  an  additional  basis  for  the  con- 


66        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Their 

Prominence 
After  the  Exile 


Portrait  of  a 
Later 'Wise  Man 


elusion  that  a  class  of  wise  men  or  sages  flour- 
ished in  the  days  before  the  exile  and  exerted 
a  quiet  but  powerful  influence  in  shaping  the 
ideals  of  the  race,  especially  in  molding  the  char- 
acter of  the  individual. 

The  wise,  however,  first  come  into  prominence 
in  Israel's  life  in  the  days  following  the  Baby- 
lonian exile.  The  destruction  of  the  nation 
brought  the  individual  and  his  problems  to  the 
front.  The  passing  of  the  prophet  threw  added 
responsibilities  upon  the  wise  men  or  sages.  The 
failure  of  the  ancient  Hebrew  state  spurred  on 
the  faithful  priests  and  sages  to  new  and  more 
strenuous  efforts  to  realize  Jehovah's  will  in  the 
life  of  the  restored  community.  The  enforced 
leisure  of  the  exile  and  of  the  periods  which  fol- 
lowed gave  ample  opportunity  for  meditation  on 
the  problems  of  the  individual.  Contact,  even 
though  indirect,  with  the  thought  of  other  na- 
tions turned  the  minds  of  Israel's  teachers  into 
new  channels  and  thus  brought  to  the  front  the 
class  which  corresponds  most  closely  to  the 
philosophers  and  the  ethical  teachers  of  Greece 
and  Rome. 

Ben  Sira  (in  39.  i-ii)  has  given  us  the  most 
vivid  picture  extant  of  the  wise  man  of  the  later 
day: 

He  seeks  out  the  hidden  meaning  of  proverbs. 

And  is  conversant  with  the  subtilties  of  parables, 

He  serves  among  great  men, 

And  appears  before  him  who  rules ; 

He  travels  through  the  land  of  strange  nations  ; 

For  he  hath  tried  good  things  and  evil  among  men. 

He  applies  his  heart  to  seeking  earnestly  the  Lord  who 

made  him, 
And  makes  supplication  before  the  Most  High, 


History  and  Aims  of  the  Wise  Men  67 

And  opens  his  mouth  in  prayer, 

And  makes  supplication  for  his  sins. 

If  the  great  Lord  will, 

He  is  filled  with  the  spirit  of  understanding, 

He  pours  forth  the  words  of  his  wisdom, 

And  in  prayer  gives  thanks  to  the  Lord. 

He  directs  his  counsel  and  knowledge, 

And  in  his  secrets  doth  he  meditate. 

He    shows    forth    the    instruction    which    he    has    been 

taught. 
And  glories  in  the  law  of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord. 
Many  shall  commend  his  understanding, 
And    so    long   as    the    world    endures,   it    shall    not   be 

blotted  out. 
His  memorial  shall  not  depart. 

And  his  name  shall  live  from  generation  to  generation. 
Nations   shall  declare  his  wisdom. 
And  the  congregation  shall  tell  out  his  praise. 
If  he   continue,   he  shall  leave  a  greater  name  than  a 

thousand, 
And  if  he  die,  he  addeth  thereto. 

This  description  is  a  true  portrait  of  Ben  Sira  character  of 
himself,  whose  thought  and  character  are  clearly  ^^"  ^^^^ 
revealed  in  the  remarkable  collection  of  practical 
and  philosophical  teachings  found  in  the  book 
which  bears  his  name.  He  was  evidently  a  man 
of  wide  experience,  of  broad  sympathies,  was 
possessed  of  a  keen  insight  into  human  nature, 
and  had  a  large  fund  of  practical  information. 
He  was  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  scriptures 
of  his  race,  as  well  as  with  the  vital  problems  of 
his  day.  Above  all,  he  was  inspired  by  an  in- 
tense desire  to  make  his  knowledge  and  expe- 
rience of  practical  service  to  all,  especially  to  the 
young.  His  references  to  the  law  and  his  em- 
phasis upon  its  careful  study  and  observation 
reflect  the  spirit  of  his  age ;  but  in  other  respects 
he  may  be  regarded  as  a  type  of  the  wise  of  the 
post-exilic  period. 


68        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Usually  Men  of 
Mature  Years 


Spoke  to  the 
Individual 


From  the  allusions  in  the  books  of  Proverbs, 
Job  and  Ecclesiastes  it  is  possible  to  gain  a  very 
definite  idea  of  the  real  character  of  these  won- 
derful teachers  of  Israel.  Usually  they  were 
men  of  mature  years.  As  has  already  been 
noted,  Ezekiel  uses  the  term  "elders"  as  a 
synonym  for  wise  men  or  sages.  Elihu's  elabo- 
rate apologies  for  speaking  in  the  council  of  the 
elders  because  he  was  young  further  illustrates 
this  point : 

I  am  young,  and  you  are  very  old ; 

Therefore    I    held    back,    and    did    not    show    you    my 
opinion.     (Job  32.  6.) 

Like  the  prophets,  they  came  from  many 
dififerent  classes.  The  recognition  of  the  needs 
of  humanity  and  the  consciousness  of  a  message 
tested  by  personal  experience  and  fitted  to  meet 
those  needs  constituted  their  divine  call.  In  gen- 
eral their  ideals  and  their  doctrines  were  those  of 
the  great  ethical  prophets  of  the  preexilic  period. 
In  addressing  their  message  directly  to  the 
people  they  stood  squarely  on  the  platform 
of  the  prophets;  but  while  the  prophets  spoke 
for  the  most  part  to  the  nation  as  a  whole, 
they  spoke  also  to  individuals.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  is  significant  that  the  word  "Israel"  is 
found  nowhere  in  the  book  of  Proverbs.  The 
v/ise  do  not  appear  to  have  concerned  themselves 
with  the  political  problems  of  their  day.  The 
problems,  the  possibilities,  and  the  development 
of  the  individuals  with  whom  they  came  into 
personal  contact  apparently  demanded  all  their 
attention. 

They  were  the  custodians  of  the  practical  ex- 


History  and  Aims  of  the  Wise  Men  69 


perience  gleaned  from  the  past  as  well  as  from    Practical 
their  own  personal  observation.     This  treasured   teachers 
experience  they  were  able  to  impart  in  clear  and 
practical  form : 

The  tongue  of  the  wise  uttereth  knowledge  aright, 
But  the  mouth  of  fools  poureth  out  folly. 

(Prov.  15.  2.) 

They  were  also  inspired  by  an  ardent  desire  to 
impart  their  knowledge: 

The  lips  of  the  wise  disperse  knowledge, 
But  the  foolish  have  no  desire  to  do  so. 

(Prov.    15.   7.) 

Association     with    them     meant     to    their     dis- 
ciples knowledge  and  power : 

He  who  walks  with  the  wise  shall  be  wise, 
But  he  who  associates  with  fools  shall  suffer  for  it. 
The  teaching  of  the  wise  is  a  source  of  life. 
That  one  may  depart  from  the  snares  of  death. 

(Prov.  13.  20,  14.) 

The  sages  of  Israel  were  true  lovers  of  men    comparison 
and   winners   of   souls    (Prov.    11.    30).      Amid    with  the 
the  changed  conditions  of  a  later  age  they  were    priJlts^^ 
the  real  successors  of  the  earlier  prophets.     In 
their  close  touch  wdth  the  individual  and  in  their 
zeal    to    influence    by    personal    instruction    and 
direction  the  youth  wdth  whom  they  came  into 
contact  they  resembled  more  closely  the  faithful 
priests  of  the  earlier  days.     They  were  boun'l 
together  by  common  aims,  teaching,  and  methods 
of  work.     The  book  of  Job  contains  a  suggestive 
picture  of  the  sages  reasoning  together  upon  cer- 
tain universal  human  problems  (12.  2;  13.  i,  2; 
32.    1-6).     It  also  illustrates  the   fact,  which  is 
further  confirmed  bv  the  book  of  Proverbs,  that 


70        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

they  did  not  always  agree  with  each  other ;  but 

regarding  the   great  practical   questions  of  life 

they  were  in  evident  accord. 
Aims  of  the  The  preface  to  the  book  of  Proverbs  clearly 

^^^^  defines  the  aims  which  this  class  of  teachers  set 

before  themselves: 

To  acquire  wisdom  and  training. 

To  understand  rational  discourse, 

To  receive  training  in  wise  conduct. 

In  uprightness,  justice,  and  rectitude. 

To   impart  discretion   to  the   inexperienced, 

To  the  young  knowledge  and  insight ; 

That  the  wise  man  may  hear  and  add  to  his  learning, 

And  the  man  of  intelligence  gain  education. 

To  understand  a  proverb  and  a  parable, 

The  words  of  the  sages  and  their  aphorisms. 

To  Develop  a        Briefly   recapitulated,   their  aims   were,   first,   to 
Receptive  Mind     inspire   in  the  minds  of  their  disciples   a   right 
attitude   toward   learning  and  practical   instruc- 
tion.    They  placed  great  emphasis  upon  the  im- 
portance of  a  receptive  mind : 

The  way  of  a  fool  is  right  in  his  own  eyes : 
But  he  that  is  wise  gives  heed  to  counsel. 

(Prov.  12.  15;  cf.  also  Prov.  10.  8.) 

Ben  Sira  insists  equally  upon  this  fundamental 
requirement    for   practical    education : 

My  son,  if  thou  wilt,  thou  mayest  be  instructed. 

And  if  thou  wilt  yield  thyself,  thou  shalt  be  ready  to 

do  anything. 
If  thou  love  to  hear,  thou  shalt  receive, 
If  thou  incline  thine  ear  thou  shalt  be  wise. 
Stand  thou  in  the  multitude  of  the  elders. 
Whoever  is  wise — cleave  thou  to  him. 
Be  willing  to  listen  to  every  excellent  discourse; 
And  let  not  the  proverbs  of  understanding  escape  thee. 
If   thou    seest   a   man   of   understanding,    bestir   thyself 

and  go  to  him. 
And  let  thy  foot  wear  out  the  steps  of  his  doors. 

(B.  Sir.  6.  32-36.) 


History  and  Aims  of  the  Wise  Men         7  I 

The  second  aim  of  the  wise  was  to  inculcate   to  Teach 
practical   knowledge   and   wisdom   in   the  minds    Practical 
of  men,  especially  the  young  and  inexperienced. 
Personified   wisdom,   speaking  in   behalf  of   the 
sages  as  a  whole,  cries  out  in  Proverbs  8.  4,  5 : 

To  you,  O  men,  I  call. 
And  my  appeal  is  to  the  sons  of  men  ; 
Learn,  O  ye  simple,  to  know  nnderstanding, 
And  ye  fools,  to  understand  wisdom. 

The  wise  felt  that  their  first  great  task  was 
to  transmit  to  every  individual  the  heritage  of 
practical,  ethical,  and  religious  experience  which 
had  come  down  to  them  from  the  past.  They 
realized  that  knowledge  was  necessary  for  right 
action,  and  they  therefore  spared  no  effort  to 
make  the  truth  inherited  from  the  past  appear 
attractive  to  their  disciples,  whether  voung  o^- 
old. 

The  third  aim  of  the  wise  was  to  develop  in   To  Create  a 
the  minds  of  men  a  right  attitude  toward  God.    ^^^^^  t"'*!''*^ 

T  M  1  1  1  111-1  1     Toward  God 

Like  the  prophets,  they  were  both  ethical  and 
religious  teachers.  One  of  their  fundamental 
doctrines  was  that  "the  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the 
beginning  of  wisdom."  In  Proverbs  14.  2  the 
sense  in  which  the  word  "fear"  is  used  is  clearly 
defined : 

He  that  walks  in  his  uprightness  fears  Jehovah ; 
But  he  that  is  perverse  in  his  ways  despises  him. 

Fear  ,  in  the  language  of  the  sages  contained 
no  suggestion  of  terror,  but  meant  reverence  and 
loyalty  expressed  in  right  acts.  The  familiar 
proverb, 

Trust  in  Jehovah  with  all  thy  heart. 
Lean  not  upon  thine  own  understanding; 


72        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

In  all  thy  ways  acknowledge  him, 
And  he  will  make  plain  thy  paths. 

(Prov.  3.  5,6), 

voices  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  these  earnest 
wisdom  teachers.  The  small  collection  of 
proverbs  found  in  Proverbs  22.  17  to  24.  34  opens 
with  the  suggestive  quotation : 

Incline  thine  ear  and  hear  the  words  of  the  wise, 

And  apply  thy  heart  to  my  knowledge. 

That  thy  trust  may  be  in  Jehovah, 

I  have  made  them  known  to  thee  this  day,  even  to  thee. 

The  fourth  aim  of  the  wise  was  to  inspire 
right  and  noble  actions.  Their  ultimate  appeal 
was  not  to  the  feelings  or  to  the  reason,  but  to 
the  will.  All  their  instruction  was  but  a  means 
to  this  practical  end : 

Let  not  kindness   and  truth   forsake  thee; 
Bind  them  about  thy  neck, 
Write  them  upon  the  tablets  of  thy  heart; 
So  shalt  thou  find  favor  and  good  repute 
In  the  sight  of  God  and  man. 

(Prov.  3-  3,  4) 

The  wise  men  sought  to  define  the  duty  of  the 
individual  in  all  his  social  relations.  The  right 
use  of  the  ear  and  tongue,  the  duties  of  children 
to  parents  and  of  parents  to  their  children,  the 
responsibility  of  a  king  to  his  subjects  and  of 
subjects  to  their  king,  the  evils  of  falsehood, 
pride,  cruelty,  and  intemperance,  and  the  value 
of  truth,  honesty,  courage,  and  charity  are  but 
a  few  of  the  practical  subjects  which  they  dis- 
cussed from  many  dififerent  points  of  view. 

In  general  the  aim  of  the  wise  was  to  make 
sane,  happy,  efficient  men  and  women.  Their 
aims,  therefore,  were  practically  identical  with 


History  and  Aims  of  the  Wise  Men         73 

those  of  the  modern  progressive  Sunday  school 
teacher  and  educator.  By  example,  as  well  as  by 
precept,  they  defined  the  aims  and  laid  down 
those  fundamental  educational  principles  which 
we  are  to-day  again  striving  to  apply.  Histori- 
cally they  are  the  forerunners  of  the  present 
world-wide  movement  for  a  broader,  deeper,  and 
more  effective  religious  education. 


VIII 


Breadth  and 
Practical 
Character  of 
Their  Teachings 


Their  Theory  of 
Education 


THE  METHODS  OF  THE  WISE  ^lEN  OR  SAGES 

The  wise  men,  like  the  Hebrew  prophets, 
recognized  no  distinction  between  that  which 
we  to-day  call  secular  and  religious.  They  were 
fully  aware  that  education  is  a  unit  and  that 
everything  which  vitally  concerns  man  or  in- 
fluences his  conduct  is  of  real  ethical  and  re- 
ligious value.  Nothing  of  real  interest  to  the 
individual  was  too  petty  for  their  consideration. 
In  their  teachings  they  aimed  to  touch  life  on 
every  side.  In  the  same  sections  in  which  they 
defined  men's  duties  to  God  they  discussed  man's 
legal  obligations  and  that  which  afifected  his  busi- 
ness. Thus  they  blended  closely  ideal  and 
utilitarian  questions  and  motives.  While  the 
reasons  that  they  urged  for  right  doing  were 
often  selfish  and  material,  they  were  clearly 
adapted  to  the  intellectual  and  moral  culture  of 
the  classes  whom  the  wise  were  seeking  to  in- 
fluence. 

In  the  vocabulary  of  the  wise  folly  stood 
for  the  lack  of  knowledge  or  of  the  desire  to 
acquire  and  use  it.  Wisdom  was  the  opposite 
of  folly  and  represented  not  only  knowledge  but 
also  the  ability  to  apply  it  practically  in  life.  In 
the  thought  of  the  wise  it  included  all  the  prac- 
tical virtues,  from  the  fear  of  God,  "which  is  the 
beginning  of  wisdom,"  to  moral  courage  and  tem- 
perance in  eating  and  drinking.  The  aim  of  edu- 
cation, therefore,  according  to  the  wise,  was  to 
74 


Methods  of  the  Wise  Men 


75 


Emphasis  on 

Primary 

Education 


deliver  the  individual  from  the  evils  of  folly  by 
enabling  him  to  acquire  insight  (that  is,  the  open 
and  intelligent  attitude),  knowledge,  and  wisdom 
(that  is,  not  only  knowledge,  but  the  ability  to 
apply  it  practically  in  lite). 

The  wise  men  also  fully  appreciated  the  im- 
portance of  primary  education.  A  great  ma- 
jority of  their  teachings  are  addressed  to  the 
young.  Here  they  found  their  most  promising 
sphere  of  influence. 

Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  in  which  he  should  go, 
And  even  when  he  is  old  he  will  not  depart  from  it. 

(Prov.  22.  6), 

was  the  guiding  principle  in  all  their  activity, 
even  as  it  is  the  watchword  of  modern  educa- 
tional psychology.  They  also  strongly  empha- 
sized the  responsibility  of  parents  in  the  educa- 
tion of  their  children : 

The  father  hath  shame,  having  begotten  an  uninstructed 

son, 
And  a  foolish  daughter  is  born  to  his  loss. 

(B.   Sir.  22.  3.)  * 

The  wise  depended  entirely  upon  personal  public 
counsel  and  teaching  for  the  attainment  of  their  Counselors 
aims.  There  are  a  few  references  which  indicate 
that  at  times  they  were  consulted  regarding  ques- 
tions of  state.  The  famous  counselors  in  David's 
court,  Ahithophel  and  Hushai,  belonged  to  this 
class.  No  important  policy  was  adopted  by  the 
king  without  consulting  them,  and  their  counsels 
were  received  with  great  respect.  In  Proverbs 
20.  i8  is  found  the  suggestive  maxim: 

Every  purpose  is  established  by  counsel, 
And  by  wise  guidance  make  thou  war. 


and  Instruction 


76        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

In  Proverbs  8.  14-16  personified  wisdom  is  made 
to  declare  in  behalf  of  the  wise  as  a  class: 

Counsel  is  mine  and  sound  knowledge; 

I  am  understanding,  I  have  might. 

By  me  kings  reign, 

And  princes  decree  justice. 

By  me  princes  rule. 

And  nobles,  even  all  the  judges  of  the  earth. 

Personal  Advice  As  3.  mlc,  howcvcr,  the  wisc  taught  the  small 
g-roups  of  disciples  which  gathered  about  them. 
To  these  they  gave  the  familiar  name  of  sons. 
The  place  of  these  ancient  religious  schools  was 
usually  just  inside  the  city  gate.  Here  were  held 
the  primitive  courts,  and  here  the  people  gathered 
for  the  discussion  of  public  and  private  questions 
as  well  as  for  purposes  of  barter.  This  place  gave 
a  good  opportimity  for  the  wise  to  come  into  close 
personal  contact  with  the  people ;  here  also  the 
youthful  learners  could  readily  consult  their 
teachers.  Question  and  answer  probably  figured 
largely  in  the  teachings  of  the  wise.  In  the  light 
of  similar  usage  in  the  East  to-day,  especially  at 
the  great  Mohammedan  school  at  Cairo,  it  is 
easy  to  reconstruct  the  scene.  An  aged  sage, 
with  a  long  flowing  beard  and  a  face  which  ex- 
presses the  love  and  interest  which  he  feels  for 
the  young,  as  well  as  the  pleasures  and  the  sor- 
rows which  have  come  to  him  in  his  long  life- 
experience,  sits  cross-legged  on  the  ground. 
About  him  in  the  same  posture  are  his  disciples. 
Their  faces  express  varying  degrees  of  interest 
and  appreciation  of  the  words  of  counsel  and 
exhortation  which  fall  from  the  lips  of  the  an- 
cient sage.  In  the  form  in  which  he  puts  his 
teachings  and  in  his  attitude  toward  those  taught 


Methods  of  the  Wise  Men  77 

IS  revealed  his  intense  zeal  to  attract  and  help 
the  ignorant  and  foolish. 

The  book  of  Proverbs  as  well  as  the  writings  zeai  to  Reach 

of  Ben  Sira  show  how  eagerly  the  wise  sought  to  ^"**  ^^^p  Those 

draw    within    the    circle    of    their    influence    the  andMoraUy^ 

youth  who  most  needed  their  teaching:  Destitute 

Neglect  not  the  discourse  of  tlie  wise. 
And  be  conversant  with  their  proverbs ; 
For  of  them  you  shall  learn  instruction, 
And  how  to  minister  to  great  men. 

Hear,  O  children,  the  instruction  of  a  father, 

Give  heed  that  ye  may  comprehend  wisdom. 

For  good  counsel  I  give  you, 

Forsake  ye  not  my  teaching. 

Wiien  I  was  of  tender  age. 

Beloved  by  my  father. 

He  used  to  teach  me  and  say  to  me : 

"Let  thy  mind  retain  my  words. 

Keep  my  commandments  and  live  ; 

Get   wisdom,    get   understanding. 

Forsake  her  not,  and  she  will  preserve  thee, 

Love  her  and  she  will  keep  thee. 

Prize  her  and  she  will  exalt  thee, 

She  will  honor  thee  if  thou  embrace  her ; 

She  will  encircle  thy  head  with  a  chaplet  of  beauty. 

Bestow  on  thee  a  crown  of  glory." 

(Prov.   4.    1-9.) 

From  the  vivid  description  of  wisdom's  ban- 
quet it  may  also  be  inferred  that  the  wise  were 
inspired  by  missionary  zeal  and  went  forth  in 
quest  of  disciples : 

Wisdom  has  built  her  house. 
Set  up  her  seven  pillars. 
Killed  her  beasts,  mixed  her  wine, 
And  prepared  her  table. 

She  has  sent  forth  her  maidens  to  cry 
On  the  thoroughfares  of  the  city : 
"Whoso  is  simple,  let  him  turn  in  hither !" 
To  him  who  is  void  of  understanding  she  says : 


Reception  of 
Their  Teachings 


7  8        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

"Come,  eat  of  my  bread, 

Drink  the  wine  I  have  mixed ! 

Forsake  folly  and  live, 

And  walk  in  the  way  of  understanding !" 

(Prov.  9.  1-6.) 

Sometimes  the  wise  met  with  rebuff  and  ridi- 
cule from  a  class  in  the  community  known  as  the 
scorners,  but  as  a  rule  their  counsels  were  highly 
appreciated.  Like  the  priests,  they  probably  re- 
ceived remuneration  for  their  counsels,  espe- 
cially in  regard  to  questions  of  personal  and 
economic  nature.  One  proverb  contains  the  ex- 
hortation : 

Buy  the  truth  and  sell  it  not; 

Yea,  wisdom,  and  instruction  and  understanding. 

In  another  the  scornful  yet  suggestive  question 
Vv^as  raised : 

Why  hath  the  fool  money  in  his  hand  to  buy  wisdom, 
Seeing  he  hath  no  understanding? 

Ben  Sira's  picture  of  the  later  wise  men  is  also 
indicative  of  the  high  esteem  which  these  moral 
specialists  and  practical  counselors  enjoyed  in 
his  day. 

Throughout  their  history  the  wise,  like  the 
scribes,  depended  almost  exclusively  upon  the 
spoken  word  as  the  means  of  reaching  and  teach- 
ing their  disciples.  They  were  fully  alive  to  the 
imiportance  of  the  close  personal  relation  be- 
tween themselves  and  the  ones  taught.  There 
came  a  time,  however,  when  they  felt  compelled, 
like  the  other  teachers  of  Israel,  to  resort  to  the 
written  word,  as  a  means  of  preserving  and  con- 
veying their  teachings.  The  product  of  this 
method  of  teachinsf  is  the  so-called  wisdom  liter- 


Methods  of  the  Wise  Men 


79 


Their  Attention 
to  Literary 
Form 


ature  of  the  Old  Testament  and  Apocrypha.  It 
is  found  in  the  books  of  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes, 
Job,  portions  of  the  Psalter,  in  the  Wisdom  of 
Ben  Sira  or  Ecclesiasticus,  and  in  the  Wisdom  of 
Solomon. 

This  literature  reveals  the  great  attention 
which  the  sages  gave  to  the  form  in  which  they 
presented  their  teachings.  It  reflects  the  influ- 
ence of  long  oral  transmission,  as  well  as  careful 
literary  revision.  It  reveals  the  intense  eager- 
ness of  the  wise  to  make  their  teachings  so  at- 
tractive that  they  would  prove  irresistible  even  to 
the  foolish,  ignorant,  and  inattentive.  They  are 
well  fitted  to  arrest  the  attention,  to  appeal 
to  the  imagination,  to  provoke  question  and 
thought,  and  to  make  a  deep  impression  upon 
the  memory. 

The  literary  unit  throughout  all  the  wisdom  The  Proverb 
literature  is  the  proverb.  In  its  simplest  form 
it  is  a  couplet,  repeating  in  the  second  line  in  a 
slightly  different  form  the  thought  contained  in 
the  first.  Thus  by  reiteration  the  essential 
thought  is  made  clear  and  fixed  in  the  memory. 
This  characteristic  of  Hebrew  poetry  added 
greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  Semitic  proverbs. 
It  enabled  the  teacher  to  bring  out  his  truth  by 
means  of  strong  comparisons  or  sharply  drawn 
contrasts  or  to  introduce  a  number  of  parallel 
figures  and  illustrations.  The  proverb  itself  is 
the  embodiment  of  crystallized  experience,  ex- 
pressed in  the  most  concise  and  vivid  form.  It  is 
like  a  barbed  arrow  which  sticks  in  the  memory. 
By  virtue  of  its  brevity  it  is  especially  adapted 
to  the  moral  instruction  of  the  young.     By  an 


8o       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

apt  use  of  figures  it  appeals  to  the  imagination, 
which  is  so  responsive  in  the  minds  of  children 
and  of  a  child-nation.  By  the  use  of  familiar 
figures  drawn  from  the  everyday  life  of  the  peo- 
ple it  also  enabled  the  wise  to  utilize  the  power 
of  association.  Moreover,  the  proverb,  like  the 
words  of  a  decalogue,  was  admirably  adapted 
to  memorization,  and  it  is  probable  that  this 
method  of  teaching  was  much  used  by  these 
early  teachers. 
Similitude  Closcly   related   to   the   simple   proverb   is   the 

similitude,  of  which  there  are  many  examples  in 
the  book  of  Proverbs : 

The  door  tiirneth  upon  its  hinges, 
So  doth  the  sluggard  upon  his  bed. 
Fervent  lips  and  a  wicked  heart 

Are  like  an  earthen  vessel  overlaid  with  silver  dross. 

(Prov.  26.   14,  23.) 

The  similitude  was  probably  one  of  the  earliest 
forms  of  teaching  employed  by  the  wise.  Peda- 
gogically,  it  was  one  of  the  most  effective,  for  it 
associated  the  most  important  truths  with  the 
commonest  objects  and  experiences  of  life. 
Riddles  Among  early  peoples,  as  among  children  to- 

day, riddles  were  greatly  enjoyed.  The  element 
of  mystery  and  the  appeal  to  the  love  of  compe- 
tition and  of  achievement  attracted  the  attention 
and  held  the  interest  of  the  young.  The  value 
of  this  form  of  teaching  was  appreciated  and  ap- 
propriated by  the  wise.  Most  of  their  riddles 
have  been  lost,  but  in  the  thirtieth  chapter  of 
Proverbs  and  in  a  few  passages  in  Ben  Sira, 
remnants  of  these  have  been  preserved,  together 
with  their  answers.     They  are  also  cast  in  the 


Methods  of  the  Wise  Men  8l 

poetic  form,  which  characterizes  practically  all 
of  the  wisdom  literature.  A  question  would  be 
propounded,  as  for  example : 

For  what  three  things  doth  the  earth  tremble, 
And  for  four  which  it  cannot  bear? 

and  the  answer  would  be : 

For  a  servant  when  he  is  king, 
For  a  fool  when  he  is  filled  with  food; 
For  an  odious  woman  when  she  is  married ; 
And  a  handmaid  that  is  heir  to  her  mistress. 

(Prov.  30.  21-23.) 

The  question  is  simple,  almost  childish,  and  yet 
one  cannot  fail  to  realize  its  superb  adaptation 
to  the  mental  limitations  of  the  ones  taught  and 
to  the  didactic  end  desired.  It  is  easy  to  im- 
agine the  spontaneous  discussion  that  would 
arise  regarding  the  correct  answer,  and  the  im- 
pression, all  the  more  effective  because  uncon- 
scious, which  would  be  made  upon  the  sage's 
disciples. 

Akin  to  the  riddle  was  the  paradox.  Its  Paradox 
thought-provoking  value  was  fully  appreciated  by 
the  wise  and  was  probably  frequently  used  by 
them.  It  was  developed  by  placing  two  anti- 
thetic proverbs  side  by  side,  as,  for  example,  in 
Proverbs  26.  4,  5 : 

Answer  not  a  fool  according  tc  his  folly. 
Lest  thou  also  be  made  like  him. 
Answer  a  fool  according  to  his  folly, 
I>est  he  be  wise  in  his  own  conceit. 

The  parable  was  used  by  the  prophets,  as,  for    parabie 
example,    by    Nathan    in    his    condemnation    of 
David's  sin.     Isaiah  also  used  the  parable,  when 
he  appeared  before  the  corrupt  rulers  of   Jeru- 


82        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

salem,  as  recorded  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  his 
prophecy.  But  the  parable  appears  to  have  been 
even  more  characteristic  of  the  method  of  teach- 
ing of  the  wise.  Many  such  parables  have  been 
handed  down  from  the  classrooms  of  the  later 
Jewish  wise  men.  In  its  form  and  content  the 
parable  is  closely  connected  with  the  similitude, 
for  it  represents  the  use  of  something  real  in  life 
or  nature  for  the  purpose  of  moral  instruction. 
Like  the  riddle  and  paradox,  it  appeals  strongly 
to  the  imagination,  curiosity,  and  power  of  asso- 
ciation, and  provokes  independent  thought  on 
the  part  of  the  learner. 
Gnomic  Essay  In   dealing   witli   the   larger   questions   of  life 

and  morals  the  wise  made  use  of  their  primary 
literary  unit,  the  proverb.  By  combining  a  va- 
riety of  proverbs,  dealing  with  the  same  subject, 
they  were  able  to  treat  it  on  many  sides.  The 
result  was  what  may  be  called  the  gnomic  essay, 
of  which  there  are  several  examples  in  the  book 
of  Proverbs  and  many  more  in  the  writings  of 
Ben  Sira  and  in  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon.  In 
some  of  these  the  wise  teachers  appeal  efifectively 
to  the  sense  of  the  ridiculous,  as,  for  example,  in 
Proverbs  26.  13-16: 

The  sluggard  says :  'There  is  a  roaring  beast  vv^ithout, 

A  lion  is  on  the  street." 

The  door  turns  on  its  hinges 

And  the  sluggard  in  his  bed. 

The  sluggard  dips  his  hand  into  the  dish — 

To  bring  it  to  his  mouth  costs  him  an  effort ! 

The  sluggard  is  wiser  in  his  own  conceit 

Than  seven  men  who  can  answer  intelligently ! 

In  the  elaborate  gnomic  essay  regarding  the 
drunkard,  found  in  Proverbs  23.  29-35,  the  effect- 


Drama 


Methods  of  the  Wise  Men  83 

ive  method  of  question  and  answer  is  combined 
with  tlie  dialogue,  making  it  the  strongest  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  to  be  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  most  beautiful  example  of  the  gnomic 
essay  is  the  noble  and  elaborate  description  of 
personified  wisdom  found  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
chapters  of  Proverbs.  The  late  book  of  Eccle- 
siastes  is  a  collection  of  similar  essays  dealing 
with  the  more  fundamental  problems  of  the 
meaning  of  human  life  and  suffering  and  the  re- 
lation of  God  to  his  universe.  The  large  body  of 
reflective  psalms  found  in  the  Psalter  are  also 
written  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  wise. 

The  highest  product  of  the  literary  art  of  the  Philosophical 
wise  is  the  philosophical  drama  found  in  the 
book  of  Job.  Taking  an  ancient  prose  story,  the 
great  poet-sage,  who  was  the  author  of  the 
present  book  of  Job,  has  introduced,  in  a  series 
of  powerful  dialogues  between  Job  and  his 
friends,  a  fundamental  treatment  of  that  most 
difficult  of  all  philosophical  questions,  the  reason 
why  the  righteous  are  allowed  to  suff'er.  In  a 
series  of  dialogues  the  friends  are  made  to  re- 
hearse the  current  solutions  of  this  vexed  prob- 
lem, while  Job,  in  his  replies,  points  out  the  in- 
sufficiency of  these  popular  explanations.  The 
hero  of  the  book  then  goes  on  to  present  the 
problem  of  suffering  in  its  most  perplexing  form 
and  to  struggle  with  the  larger  question  of  how 
a  God  who  thus  allows  his  innocent  children  to 
suffer  can  himself  be  just  and  loving.  The  tran- 
scendent poetic  power  of  this  unknown  wisdom 
teacher  has  been  recognized  by  all  ages.  The 
frankness  and  scientific  accuracy  with  which  he 


84        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

presents  the  problem  assures  him  a  place  among 
the  greatest  philosophers  of  the  world.  It  is, 
however,  his  consummate  didactic  skill  that  com- 
mands our  highest  admiration.  The  book  of  Job 
stands  as  the  supreme  example  to  the  religious 
teacher  of  the  absolute  importance  of  recogniz- 
ing frankly  the  grave  and  perplexing  problems 
of  life  and  of  meeting  them,  not  by  dogmatic 
assertions  but,  if  need  be,  by  a  confession  of  in- 
ability to  give  a  final  and  satisfactory  answer. 
It  is  significant,  however,  that  although  the 
author  of  the  book  of  Job  offers  no  final  solution 
of  the  problem  of  innocent  sufifering,  he  does  far 
more :  he  leads  his  perplexed,  baffled,  and  at  times 
intemperate  hero  out  into  the  great  world  of 
nature.  There  confronted  by  the  marvelous  phe- 
nomena of  God's  tmiverse.  Job's  spirit  is  soothed, 
his  problem  is  almost  forgotten,  and  his  faith 
rises  triumphant  over  his  doubts,  until  at  last  he 
declares : 

I  know  that  thou  canst  do  all  things, 

And  that  no  purpose  of  thine  can  be  restrained. 

Who  is  this  that  hideth  counsel  without  knowledge? 

Why  have  I  uttered  that  which  I  understood  not, 

Things  too  wonderful  for  me  which  I  knew  not  ? 

Hear,  I  beseech  thee,  and  I  will  speak; 

I  will  demand  of  thee,  and  declare  thou  to  me. 

I  had  heard  of  thee  by  the  hearing  of  the  ear; 

But  now  mine  eye  seeth  thee ; 

Therefore  I  abhor  myself, 

And  repent  in  dust  and  ashes.     (Job.  42.  2-6.) 

Perennial  It  is  clcar,  in  the  light  of  the  study  of  their 

Significance  of      ^j^-^^g  ^^^  mcthods,  that  tlic  wisc  men  of  ancient 

the\Vise  .  1         c    ^i  r 

Israel  are,  m  a  very  true  sense,  the  fathers  ot 
the  present  religious  educational  movement.  That 
for  which  the  modern  Sunday  school  stands  is 


Methods  of  the  Wise  Men  85 

new  only  in  certain  details  of  its  organization. 
Every  religious  teacher  also  has  much  to  learn 
from  these  early  lovers  and  teachers  of  men. 
They  were  keenly  alive  to  the  importance  of  a 
close  sympathetic  touch  with  those  whom  the\' 
aimed  to  teach.  They  recognized  and  applied  the 
great  truth  that  the  early  impressionable  years 
of  childhood  and  youth  present  by  far  the  most 
promising  opportunities  for  shaping  ideals  and 
habits  and  for  molding  character.  They  realized 
that  the  aim  of  their  work  was  not  only  instruc- 
tion but  education,  and  that  true  education  was 
the  development  of  the  whole  man.  Therefore 
all  that  concerned  and  influenced  the  individual 
was  of  divine  significance.  They  were  keenly 
alive  to  the  importance  of  appealing  to  the  in- 
terest, imagination  and  curiosity  of  their  dis- 
ciples. They  also  utilized  with  remarkable  skill 
the  power  of  association.  They  possessed  the 
rare  art  of  putting  their  teachings  in  simple, 
vivid,  and  yet  universal  form,  so  that  they  be- 
came the  teachers,  not  only  of  their  own  age,  but 
of  all  generations.  Finally  their  zeal  to  reach 
out  and  help  the  simple  and  inexperienced  and 
tempted  and  to  make  strong,  efficient  men  and 
women  is  a  perennial  guide  and  inspiration  to  all 
who  would  undertake  the  divinest  of  tasks,  the 
making  of  men. 


IX 


The  Preexilic 
Scribes 


Influence  of  the 
Exile  on  the 
Scribes 


THE   HISTORY  AND   AIMS   OF   THE   SCRIBES 
AND  RABBIS 

The  earliest  reference  in  the  Old  Testament 
to  the  scribes  as  a  class  is  found  in  Jeremiah 
8.  8: 

How  can  you  say.^  "We  are  wise,  and  the  law  of  Jehovah 

is  with  us"? 
But,    behold,    the    deceptive    pen    of    the    scribes    hath 

rendered  it  deceptive. 

The  Hebrew  word  interpreted  "scribes"  means, 
literally,  nioi  of  books,  that  is,  the  editors  and 
interpreters  as  well  as  the  copyists  of  the  writ- 
ings of  Israel's  earlier  teachers.  In  this  im- 
portant passage  Jeremiah  condemns  those  who, 
in  the  name  of  Closes,  set  the  law,  which  they 
have  freely  revised,  above  the  spoken  words  of 
the  prophet.  This  reference,  as  well  as  the  ex- 
•  istence  of  the  preexilic  writings,  shows  clearly 
that  scribes  were  found  in  Israel  before  the  days 
of  the  Babylonian  exile.  Like  the  scribes  of 
Babylonia  and  Egypt,  they  probably  belonged  to 
the  priestly  class  and  their  work  was  purely 
literary. 

The  Babylonian  exile  wrought  a  great  revolu- 
tion in  Israel's  internal  organization,  as  well  as 
in  its  life  and  thought.  Contact  with  the  intense 
literary  activity  of  the  Babylonians  and  the  con- 
stant use  of  writing  as  a  means  of  communica- 
tion between  the  scattered  exiles  and  their  new; 
86 


History  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis  87 

appreciation  of  their  ancient  writings  trans- 
formed the  Jews  into  a  Hterary  people.  The  de- 
struction of  the  temple  and  the  overthrow  of  the 
nation  not  only  left  the  priestly  class  without 
occupation,  but  also  called  for  a  written  formu- 
lation of  the  customary  laws  and  institutions 
which  had  hitherto  been  transmitted  orally  and 
constantly  illustrated  by  practice.  Hence  the 
work  of  the  scribe  suddenly  became  of  the  high- 
est importance,  for  Israel's  inherited  traditions, 
laws,  and  institutions  constituted  the  strongest 
bond  that,  during  this  period  of  severe  stress 
and  trial,  kept  alive  the  faith  and  preserved  the 
integrity  of  the  race.  The  result  was  that  many 
of  the  more  faithful  priests  became  scribes  and 
devoted  themselves  to  the  task  of  copying,  unify- 
ing, and  codifying  their  inherited  laws  and  tra- 
ditions. The  changed  conditions  which  followed 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  nation  also 
made  necessary  new  laws,  fitted  to  meet  these 
needs.  The  task  of  expanding  the  older  laws 
and  of  applying  the  principles  of  the  prophets  to 
the  altered  life  and  point  of  view  of  the  people 
fell  naturally  to  these  priestly  scribes. 

When  the  canon  of  the  written  law  was  finally    Extension  of  the 
closed,  some  time  after  400  B.  C,  the  expansion    influence  and 

-     ,      '  .  ,     ,  .         ,         .  -  ,   ^  Functions  of  the 

of  the  law  contmued,  but  m  the  form  of  oral  tra-  scribes 
ditions,  which  were  transmitted  by  word  of 
mouth  from  generation  to  generation,  until  they 
were  ultimately  committed  to  writing  about  the 
end  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
They  were  then  known  as  the  Mishna,  or  sec- 
ond version  of  the  law\  Thus  there  arose  in 
the  centuries  immediately   following  the   Baby- 


88        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

Ionian  exile  a  large  and  powerful  class  of  scribes, 
whose  influence  in  the  Judean  community  over- 
shadowed that  of  the  prophets  and  the  priests. 
Probably  the  majority  of  the  scribes  still  came 
from  the  ranks  of  the  priests.  The  high  priest, 
Simon  the  Just,  who  lived  about  300  B.  C,  was 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  these  earlier  scribes. 
But  as  time  went  on  laymen  were  to  be  found 
more  and  more  in  their  ranks,  and  the  distinction 
between  the  priestly  class  and  the  scribes  became 
more  clearly  drawn.  In  this  reorganization  the 
scribes  largely  assumed  the  teaching  functions  of 
the  earlier  priests.  As  the  written  law  grew  in 
importance  and  in  public  esteem,  its  custodians 
were  naturally  regarded  as  its  interpreters.  The 
scribes  were  also  keenly  alive  to  the  necessity  of 
inculcating  the  truths  in  the  minds  of  the  people 
as  well  as  of  interpreting  the  specific  laws. 
Ezra  the  Typical  The  portrait  of  Ezra,  found  in  the  seventh 
chapter  of  the  book  which  bears  his  name,  is 
typical  of  the  class:  ''He  was  a  scribe  skilled  in 
the  law  of  Moses,  which  Jehovah  the  God  of 
Israel  had  given.  .  .  .  And  he  came  to  Jerusalem, 
since  the  good  Lord  was  with  him,  for  Ezra  had 
set  his  heart  to  seek  the  law  of  Jehovah  and  ob- 
serve it,  and  to  teach  in  Israel  its  statutes."  The 
account  of  his  work  which  follows  illustrates 
clearly  the  aims  and  methods  of  these  early 
scribes.  He  is  represented  first  as  appealing  in 
powerful  exhortation  to  the  feelings  and  con- 
sciences of  the  people,  and  then  as  arousing  the 
community  to  adopt  the  new  law-book  which  he 
brought  with  him,  even  though  it  meant  great 
sacrifice.      In    carrying   through    this    sweeping 


Scribe 


History  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis  89 


reformation,  the  law-book  was  read  before  the 
people  and  interpreted  to  them.  The  account  of 
this  ancient  synagogue  service  also  contains  a 
long  and  fervent  prayer  in  which  the  lessons 
taught  by  Israel's  earlier  experiences  as  a  nation 
are  reviewed  and  the  people  led  to  make  a  com- 
mon confession  of  their  guilt. 

It  was  almost  inevitable,  as  a  result  of  the  in- 
creasing emphasis  which  Judaism  placed  upon 
the  written  law,  that  the  wdse  men  or  sages 
should  ultimately  be  drawn  into  the  ranks  of  the 
scribes.  In  his  description  of  the  typical  wise 
men  Ben  Sira  (about  200  B.  C.)  furnishes  clear 
evidence  that  in  his  day  this  process  was  far  ad- 
vanced.    He  significantly  remarks  that: 

The    wisdom    of    the    scribe    comes    by    opportunity    of 

leisure, 
He  that  is  relieved  from  business  shall  become  wise. 

He  then  goes  on  to  point  out  how  impossible  it 
is  for  the  farmer,  the  ox-driver,  the  artificer,  and 
the  other  manual  workers  in  the  community 
to  acquire  the  learning  of  the  scribe.  He  con- 
cludes : 

All  these  put  their  trust  in  their  hands ; 

And  each  becomes  wise  in  his  own  work. 

Without  these  a  city  cannot  be  inhabited, 

And  men  cannot  sojourn  or  walk  up  and  down  therein. 

They    shall    not   be    sought    for   in    the    council    of   the 
people, 

And  in  the  assembly  they  shall  not  mount  on  high; 

They  shall  not  sit  on  the  seat  of  the  judge, 

And  they  shall  not  understand  the  covenant  of  judg- 
ment ; 

Neither  shall  they  declare  instruction  and  judgment; 

And  where  parables  are  they  shall  not  be  found. 

But  they  will  maintain  the  fabric  of  the  world; 

And  in  the  handiwork  of  their  craft  is  their  prayer. 

(B.  Sir.  38.  31-34.) 


Transformation 
of  the  Wise  into 
Scribes 


90        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Influence  of  the 
Scribes  in  the 
Maccabean  and 
Roman  Periods 


By  the  beginning"  of  the  Christian  era  the  wise 
had  completely  passed  over  into  the  ranks  of 
the  scribes.  Henceforth  the  term  zvise  is  con- 
stantly used  as  the  designation  of  the  famous 
scribes  or  rabbis.  This  fusion  of  the  earlier  wise 
with  the  scribes  greatly  enriched  and  broadened 
the  thought  and  methods  of  the  latter.  In  the 
reported  teachings  that  have  been  handed  down 
from  the  scribes  and  rabbis  there  is  a  large 
didactic  element  relating  to  the  common  prob- 
lems of  humanity.  In  the  epigrammatic,  gnomic 
form  in  which  many  of  the  later  scribes  put  their 
teachings  it  is  also  easy  to  recognize  the  power- 
ful influence  of  the  sages.  This  broader  human 
element  remains  the  permanent  contribution  of 
the  scribes  to  the  world's  religious  heritage. 

Under  the  later  Maccabean  rulers  the  scribes 
became  so  numerous  and  their  influence"  so 
strong  that  they  were  granted  representation  in 
the  Sanhedrin,  the  great  legislative  and  judicial 
body  of  the  Jewish  state.  From  the  reference  in 
I  Maccabees  7.  12,  13,  it  is  clear  that  the  scribes 
from  the  first  were  closely  associated  with  the 
Pharisees.  Doubtless  there  were  Sadducean 
scribes,  but  most  of  these  later  interpreters  and 
teachers  of  the  law  belonged  to  the  more  popular 
party  of  the  Pharisees.  In  the  New  Testament 
the  terms  are  used  almost  interchangeably.  It  is 
probable  that  the  great  majority,  if  not  all 
of  the  Pharisees,  were  also  scribes.  The  fidelity 
of  the  scribal  class  to  the  law,  as  is  illus- 
trated by  the  story  of  the  martyrdom  of  the  aged 
scribe,  Eleazer,  in  2  Maccabees  6.  12-31,  en- 
deared them  to  the  people  and  gave  them  that 


History  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis  9 1 

position  of  commanding  influence  which  the}* 
en joyed  during  the  New  Testament  period.  This 
influence  was  increased  by  the  zeal  with  which 
they  devoted  themselves  to  the  task  of  instructing 
the  people  in  the  details  of  the  law.  The  great 
majority  of  them  were  doubtless  inspired  by  a 
noble  purpose.  Their  aims  and  ambitions  be- 
came those  of  the  nation.  In  realizing  these 
aims  in  the  lives  of  the  people  their  work  was 
certainly  crowned  with  success. 

Jewish  wu'iters  recognize  three  distinct  stages  The  Early 
in  the  history  of  scribism.  The  first,  beginning  sophenm 
with  Ezra  and  extending  to  the  Alaccabean 
period  (450  to  150  B.  C),  is  represented  by  the 
Sopherim,  or  scribes.  A'ery  little  is  known  about 
the  personality  and  work  of  these  early  teachers. 
A  few  characteristic  teachings  attributed  to  them 
are  found  in  the  opening  sections  of  the  Mishna, 
known  as  the  Ahoth,  or  Sayings  of  the  Fathers. 
Their  great  task  was  the  completing  and  editing 
of  the  written  laws  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  closing  of  the  legal  canon.  From  them  also 
comes  the  suggestive  precept,  ''Raise  tip  dis- 
ciples," indicating  that  they  were  teachers  as 
well  as  revisers  and  interpreters  of  the  law.  To 
this  early  group  belonged  the  high  priest,  Simon 
the  Just,  to  whom  is  attributed  the  characteristic 
teaching:  "On  three  things  the  world  is  stayed: 
on  the  Torah,  and  on  worship,  and  on  the  be- 
stowal of  kindnesses."  He  was  followed  by 
Antigonos  of  Soclio,  who  lived  late  in  the  Greek 
period.  He  is  the  author  of  the  noble  teaching, 
''Be  not  as  slaves  who  minister  to  the  lord  with 
a  view  to  reward,  but  be  as  slaves  who  minister 


92         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


The  Pairs  of 
Teachers 


Hillel  and 
Shammai 


to  the  master  without  a  view  to  receiving  a  re- 
ward" (Aboth  I.  3). 

The  second  period  is  represented  by  the 
Zugoth,  or  Pairs,  who  labored  during  the  later 
part  of  the  Maccabean  and  the  earlier  part  of  the 
Roman  age  (150-10  B.  C).  The  names  of  five 
such  pairs  of  teachers  are  preserved  in  the  rab- 
binical literature.  Many  precepts  and  sayings 
are  attributed  to  them.  Each  appears  to  have 
gathered  about  himself  a  large  following  of  dis- 
ciples. 

The  most  famous  pair  was  Hillel  (the  Elder) 
and  Shammai  (The  Elder),  who  flourished  a 
little  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
Hillel  was  born  in  Babylon  and,  although,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  a  descendant  of  the  royal 
house  of  David,  he  was  forced  to  struggle  with 
poverty  during  his  earlier  years.  It  is  said  that 
he  was  forty  years  of  age  before  he  came  to 
Jerusalem  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  law 
under  the  great  teachers  of  his  day,  Shemaiah 
and  Abtalyon.  It  is  related  that  on  one  occasion, 
lacking  the  fee  required  for  entrance  to  the 
rabbinical  college,  he  climbed  up  on  the  window 
sill  in  order  to  hear  the  lectures.  There  he  be- 
came so  interested  in  listening  that  he  did  not 
notice  the  snow  which  fell  upon  him.  At  last 
the  attention  of  those  inside  was  attracted  by  the 
early  darkening  of  the  room.  On  investigation 
they  found  him  insensible  with  the  cold  and  with 
difficulty  restored  him  to  consciousness.  Hillel 
became  the  founder  of  a  famous  school  which 
was  very  influential  in  the  development  of  Jewish 
national  character  and  faith.     He  was  noted  foe 


History  of  the  Scribes  and  RaiDbis  93 


his  meekness,  tolerance  and  breadth  of  view, 
while  his  rival,  Shammai,  was  exceedingly  con- 
servative and  possessed  of  a  hasty  temper.  To 
him  is  attributed  the  saying,  "Make  thy  Torah  a 
fixed  thing,  say  little  and  do  much,  and  receive 
every  man  with  a  cheerful  countenance"  (Aboth 
I.  15).  Hillel  was  the  author  of  the  famous 
summary  of  the  law  which  is  so  often  compared 
with  that  of  Jesus:  "What  is  hateful  to  thyself, 
do  not  to  thy  fellow-man ;  this  is  the  whole 
Torah,  the  rest  is  only  commentary"  (Shabbath 
30b).  The  discussions  between  these  two  great 
teachers  and  the  schools  founded  by  them  fill 
many  pages  of  the  Talmud  and  reflect  the  widely 
different  beliefs  and  points  of  view  of  the 
Judaism  of  the  day. 

The  third  period  is  represented  by  the  Tdii- 
naim,  or  teachers,  who  flourished  during  the 
first  two  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  To  these 
for  the  first  time  was  given  the  title  Rabbi,  my 
Master,  or  simply,  Rabban,  Master.  The  rabbis, 
therefore,  were  the  great  teachers  who  rose  from 
the  ranks  of  the  scribes.  It  was  a  term  of  honor 
and  distinction,  being  derived  from  the  Hebrew 
word  meaning  great.  The  best  known  rabbis 
were  Gamaliel  (the  Elder),  a  son  or  grandson  of 
Hillel,  Johanan,  also  of  the  school  of  Hillel,  who 
founded  the  famous  rabbinical  school  at  Jamnia, 
and  Gamaliel  H,  who  succeeded  Johanan. 

The  activity  of  the  scribes  was  so  many-sided   Aims  of  the 
that  it  is  difficult  briefly  to  formulate  their  aims.    Scribes 
Their  first  aim  was  to  interpret  and  to  apply  the 
teachings  of  Israel's  earlier  teachers  to  the  life 
and  needs  of  their  own  day.     Their  second  aim, 


The  Later 
Teachers 


94        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

akin  to  the  first,  was  to  rear  up  a  nation  which 
should  conform  in  every  detail  to  the  demands 
of  the  Torah,  which  they  held  to  be  the  full  and 
complete  expression  of  the  will  of  Jehovah.  To 
this  end  they  aimed,  in  the  first  place,  to  regulate 
in  minutest  detail  the  conduct  of  each  individual, 
and  thus  to  make  servants  of  God  by  producing 
servants  of  the  law.  Finally  they  aimed  to  train 
up  disciples  who  as  teachers  would  carry  on  this 
work  and  realize  in  the  life  of  the  nation  the  will 
of  Jehovah,  as  defined  by  the  law.  While  the 
scribes  were  interested  in  the  individual,  they 
were  preeminently  interested  in  attaining  their 
ideal  through  the  nation.  This  ideal  was  con- 
crete and  definite,  yet  from  its  very  nature  im- 
possible of  complete  realization ;  for  an  extreme 
emphasis  upon  law  obscures  fundamental  prin- 
ciples and  arrests  the  development  of  that  in- 
dividual moral  and  spiritual  sense  which  is  the 
essence  of  all  religious  progress  and  growth. 


X 


THE  METHODS  OF  THE  SCRIBES  AND  RABBIS 

The   scribes,   like   the   earlier  wise,   depended   The  Great 
almost  exclusively  on  teaching-  for  the   realiza-    Opportunity  of 

•^  *.  the  Scribes 

tion  of  their  aims.  They  occupied  a  unique  van- 
tage ground  for  performing  their  tasks.  They 
enjoyed  the  highest  respect  and  regard  of  the 
people.  They  were  the  custodians  of  the  law  and 
its  authoritative  interpreters.  They  were  fully 
represented  in  the  Sanhedrin,  the  great  adminis- 
trative, legislative,  and  judicial  body  of  their  na- 
tion. They  were  thus  able  as  legislators  to  enact 
laws,  as  lawyers  to  interpret  them,  as  judges  to 
apply  them,  and  as  the  chief  rulers  of  their  people 
to  execute  them.  To  this  was  added  the  even 
more  potent  function  of  teacher,  in  that  they 
were  able  to  inculcate  the  laws  into  the  minds  of 
the  people  and  thus  through  the  will  to  control 
the  springs  of  action.  Powerless  in  the  grasp  of 
imperial  Rome,  spurred  on  by  contact  Vv^ith  the 
great  civilizations  of  the  ancient  world,  the 
Jewish  race  was  in  a  uniquely  receptive  attitude 
toward  the  message  of  its  great  teachers.  The 
interest  and  belief  in  educational  methods  was 
never  stronger  in  any  other  age  or  race  except 
possibly  among  the  civilized  Christian  races  of 
to-day. 

The  scribes,  heirs  of  the  earlier  wise,  showed 
themselves  masters  of  most  of  the  so-called 
''modern"  pedagogical  principles.  That  they  did 
not  fully  realize  their  aims  was  not  because  of 


Their  W^eakness 
not  as  Teachers 
but  as" 
Interpreters 


96  Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Their  Direct 
Instruction  of 
the  People 


Public 
Discussion 


the  defects  in  their  methods.  The  causes  lay 
deeper.  It  was  as  interpreters  of  the  law  that 
they  suffered  from  the  lack  of  the  as  yet  unborn 
historical  and  scientific  spirit.  The  loose,  alle- 
gorizing methods,  inherited  from  the  Greeks 
through  Alexandria,  led  them  far  afield  from  the 
true  meaning  of  their  scriptures.  Fanciful  con- 
jecture— a  characteristic  Oriental  heritage — too 
often  took  the  place  of  logical  reasoning.  It  was 
as  interpreters,  therefore,  and  not  as  teachers, 
that  the  Jewish  rabbis  failed. 

As  teachers  the  scribes  and  the  rabbis  appear 
to  have  touched  the  mass  of  the  people  directly 
in  three  ways.  The  first  was  as  readers  and  in- 
terpreters of  the  law  in  connection  with  the 
synagogue  service.  Mark  i.  22  contains  a  sug- 
gestive reference  to  this  practice.  Although  the 
service  in  the  synagogue  was  thoroughly  demo- 
cratic, when  a  learned  scribe  was  present,  he, 
like  Jesus  at  Nazareth,  was  undoubtedly  asked 
to  read  and  explain  the  passages  from  the  law 
and  the  prophets  which  were  read  each  Sabbath 
in  connection  with  the  synagogue  service.  Thus 
a  rare  opportunity  was  given  them  to  teach  the 
young  as  well  as  the  leaders  of  the  community. 
The  second  means  was  through  the  primary 
S3'nagogue  schools  which,  according  to  tradition, 
were  established  near  the  close  of  the  Macca- 
bean  period.  The  third  opportunity  was  through 
their  disciples  who  came  to  them  in  great  num- 
bers and  in  turn  went  forth  as  teachers  of  the 
people. 

In  teaching  the  young  disciples,  the  scribes, 
especially  the  great  rabbis,  showed  remarkable 


Answer 


Methods  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis  97 

skill  and  versatility.  One  common  method  was  by 
piiblic  discussion  between  the  masters  of  the 
different  schools.  These  discussions  were  ex- 
ceedingly free  and  the  most  varied  opinions  were 
expressed.  Often,  the  subjects  considered  were 
trivial,  but  frequently  they  dealt  with  the  most 
fundamental  principles  of  faith  and  practice.  By 
this  method  a  theme  was  treated  from  many 
points  of  view  and  the  individual  was  obliged  to 
use  his  own  judgment  in  arriving  at  the  final 
conclusion. 

The  rabbis  also  depended  largely  on  the  Question  and 
method  of  question  and  answer.  Seated  upon  a 
raised  platform,  usually  within  the  temple  pre- 
cincts, with  their  disciples  gathered  about  them, 
these  skilled  teachers  of  Judaism  always  held 
themselves  open  to  questions  and  frequently 
in  turn  presented  concrete  cases  for  discussion 
and  treatment  by  their  disciples.  Alany  illustra- 
tions are  found  in  the  Talmud  of  this  seminar 
method.  A  disciple  once  inquired  of  his  teacher, 
''What  is  real  wisdom?"  The  teacher  replied, 
"To  judge  liberally,  to  live  purely,  and  to  love 
thy  neighbor."  Another  teacher,  possibly  influ- 
enced by  the  Socratic  philosophy,  answered, 
''The  greatest  wisdom  is  to  know  thyself."  The 
following  are  some  of  the  typical  questions  pro- 
pounded and  the  answers  given  by  the  members 
of  this  school:  ''Who  gains  wisdom?  He  who  is 
willing  to  receive  instruction  from  all  sources. 
Who  is  the  mighty  man?  He  who  subdues  his 
temper.  \Mio  is  rich?  He  who  is  content  with 
his  lot.  \M"io  is  deserving  of  honor?  He  who 
honors    mankind.      How    can    you    escape    sin? 


98         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Memorization 


Exact  Verbal 
Reproduction 
of  the  Master's 
Teaching 


Think  of  three  things :  whence  you  corne,  whither 
you  go,  and  before  whom  you  must  appear." 

The  rabbis  depended  wholly  upon  oral  instruc- 
tion. Until  near  the  close  of  the  second  Chris- 
tian century,  the  rabbinic  authorities  were  all  op- 
posed to  committing  the  oral  law  to  writing. 
The  result  was  that  the  rabbis  cast  most  of  their 
teachings  in  brief,  often  epigrammatic  form  so 
that  they  could  be  easily  remembered.  They 
placed  great  emphasis  upon  memorization.  Their 
ideal  disciple  was  one  "quick  to  hear,  and  slow 
to  forget"  (Aboth  5.  18).  "When  a  scholar  of 
the  wise  sits  and  studies  and  forgets  a  word  of 
his  Mishna,  they  account  it  to  him  as  worthy  of 
death"  (Aboth  3.  12)  was  one  of  the  favorite 
maxims  of  the  rabbinical  school. 

The  disciples  were  also  strenuously  warned 
not  to  teach,  in  form  or  content,  anything  differ- 
ent from  what  they  had  learned  from  their 
masters.  In  this  latter  injunction  is  foimd  one 
of  the  chief  defects  of  the  rabbinical  teaching. 
It  destroyed  all  originality  and  checked  the  ex- 
pression of  personal  conviction,  which  constitutes 
the  great  charm  and  power  of  a  real  teacher.  It 
explains  the  surprise  of  the  multitude  that  Jesus 
"taught  with  authority  and  not  as  the  scribes." 
This  rule  was  well  calculated  to  preserve  intact 
the  heritage  of  the  past,  but  it  was  fatal  to  the 
development  of  the  true  religion,  which  must  be 
constantly  adjusted  to  the  point  of  view  and 
needs  of  each  succeeding  generation.  It  was  be- 
cause the  great  rabbis  themselves  disobeyed  this 
injunction  that  Judaism  is  to-day  a  living  and 
developing  religion. 


Methods  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis  99 


the  Halachic 
Type  of 
Teaching 


To  aid  the  memory  and  the  imagination  the  stones,  or  the 
scribes  frequently  illustrated  their  teachings  by  ^^^^^^^^^J/^^ 
means  of  stories.  These  were  most  commonly 
used  in  connection  with  their  explanation  of  the 
historical  and  didactic  books.  This  blend  of  doc- 
trinal teachings,  exhortations,  parables,  and  sto- 
ries is  called  Hdggddd,  and  constitutes  a  large 
part  of  the  Talmud,  which,  with  its  twelve  huge 
volumes,  is  a  compendium  of  rabbinic  teachings. 

The  rabbis  put  a  large  part  of  their  teachings  orai  Laws,  or 
in  the  form  of  concise  precepts.  By  their  con- 
temporaries and  later  generations  these  oral  laws 
were  regarded  as  supplemental  to  the  written 
law  and  of  equal  authority  with  it.  These  pre- 
cepts and  legal  traditions  were  known  as  the 
Halacha,  literally,  zvay,  that  is,  usage,  rule.  This 
was  the  fence,  or  hedge,  which  the  rabbis  sought 
to  construct  about  the  written  law.  By  means  of 
these  oral  laws  they  endeavored  to  answer  every 
possible  question  that  might  arise  in  regard  to 
conduct,  so  that  an  infringement  of  any  of  the 
written  laws,  in  spirit  or  in  letter,  would  be  im- 
possible. The  aim  was  excellent,  but  in  practice 
this  method  broke  down  with  its  own  weight.  It 
loaded  the  race  with  a  mass  of  enactments  which 
obscured  the  really  vital  principles  and  blunted 
the  individual's  sense  of  right  and  wrong. 

In  the  midst,  however,  of  a  mass  of  petty  rules  Precepts 
there  are  found  many  noble  moral  precepts,  some 
legal  and  some  embodying  the  fruits  of  universal 
human  experience.  The  latter  are  the  product  of 
the  fusion  of  the  wise  men  and  the  scribes.  In 
depth  of  thought,  in  beauty  of  form,  and  in  per- 
ennial value  many  of  them  are  comparable  with 


1 OO       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

the  teachings  of  the  Old  and  "New  Testament. 
'Three  friends,"  said  the  rabbis,  ''has  man :  God, 
his  father,  and  his  mother.  'He  who  honors  his 
parents,'  saith  God,  'honors  me,  even  as  though 
I  Hved  among  them.'  "  Again  they  taught,  "The 
place  honors  not  the  man,  it  is  the  man  who  gives 
honor  to  the  place."  "He  who  mixes  with  un- 
clean things  becomes  unclean  himself ;  he  whose 
associations  are  pure  becomes  more  holy  each 
day."  "Despise  no  man  and  deem  nothing  im- 
possible ;  every  man  has  his  hour,  and  everything 
its  place."  "Men  should  be  careful  lest  they 
cause  women  to  weep,  for  God  counts  their 
tears."  "He  who  possesses  a  knowledge  of  God 
and  a  knowledge  of  man,  will  not  easily  commit 
sin."  "The  best  preacher  is  the  heart;  the  best 
teacher  is  time ;  the  best  book  is  the  world ;  the 
best  friend  is  God."  "He  who  is  loved  by  man, 
is  loved  by  God."  One  of  these  precepts  vividly 
recalls  the  teaching  of  Jesus:  "Alan  sees  the 
mote  in  his  neighbor's  eye,  but  knows  not  of  the 
beam  in  his  own." 
Proverbs  The  provcrb  was  also  a  favorite  form  of  teach- 

ing of  the  rabbis.  In  this  respect,  as  in  many 
others,  they  showed  themselves  the  faithful  dis- 
ciples of  the  earlier  wise.     Thus  they  taught: 

If  a  word  spoken  in  its  time  is  worth  one  piece  of 

money, 
Silence  in  its  time  is  worth  two. 

Another  voices  that  high  appreciation  of  indus- 
try and  honest  labor  which  has  always  char- 
acterized the  Jew : 

Rather  skin  a  carcass  for  pay  in  the  public  streets, 
Than  lie  idly  dependent  on  charity. 


Methods  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis  1 0 1 

Another  proverb  reveals  a  keen  appreciation  of 
human  nature,  and  recalls  the  brilliant  aphorism 
of  the  book  of  Proverbs  concerning  the  fool: 

The  foolish  man  knows  not  an  insult. 

Neither  does  a  dead  man  feel  the  cutting  of  a  knife. 

Also: 

There  are  three  crowns:  of  the  law,  the  priesthood,  and 

the  kingship ; 
But  the  crown  of  a  good  name  is  greater  than  them  all. 

The  following  proverb  also  expresses  that  high 
estimate  of  primary  education  which  was  the 
glory  of  the  Jewish  race : 

The  world  is  saved  by  the  breath  of  school  children ; 
Even   to   rebuild   the  temple,   the   schools   must  not  be 
closed. 

The  scribes  were  also  adepts  in  putting  their   Epigrams 
thought    in    epigrammatic    form.      Thus    they 
taught : 

The  ass  complains  of  the  cold  even  in  July. 
A  small  coin  in  a  large  jar  makes  a  great  noise. 
The  sun  will  set  without  thy  assistance. 

Commit   a   sin   twice   and  it  will   not   seem  to  thee  a 
crime. 

What  is  intended  for  thy  neighbor  will  never  be  thine. 

A   thief  who    finds   no   opportunity   to   steal,   considers 
himself  an  honest  man. 

The  rabbis  also  appreciated  the  value  of  prayer   prayer 
as  a  vital  factor  in  the  education  of  their  dis- 
ciples.    They  not  only  taught  their  disciples  cer- 
tain prayers,  but  gave  many  wise  teachings  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  prayer : 

Look  not  on  thy  prayers  as  on  a  task; 
I^et  thy  supplications  be  sincere, 


1 02       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

To  pray  loudly  is  not  a  necessity  of  devotion ; 
When    we    pray    we    must    direct    our    hearts    toward 
heaven. 

One  need  not  stand  upon  a  high  place  to  pray, 
For  it  is  written,  "Out  of  the  depths  have  I  called  to 
thee,  O  Lord." 

Prayer  is  Israel's  only  weapon, 

A  weapon  inherited  from  its  fathers ; 

A  weapon  proved  in  a  thousand  battles. 

To  make  their  teachings  impressive,  the  rabbis 
sometimes  put  them  into  the  form  of  woes  and 
beatitudes,  as  did  the  Great  Teacher  of  Naza- 
reth : 

Woe  to  the  country  which  has  lost  its  leader; 
Woe  to  the  ship  when  its  captain  is  no  more. 

The  Rabbi  Johanan  also  taught : 

Happy  are  you,  O,  sons  of  Israel ; 

As  long  as  you  perform  the  will  of  God,  naught  can 

conquer  you ; 
But  if  you  fail  to  fulfill  his  wishes,  even  the  cattle  are 

superior  to  you. 

The  following  beatitude  is  of  profound  and  prac- 
tical significance: 

Blessed  is  the  son  who  has  studied  with  his  father, 
And  blessed  is  the  father  who  has  instructed  his  son. 

The  scribes  and  rabbis  made  a  large  use  of  the 
parable  as  a  means  of  illustrating  their  teachings. 
Alany  of  them  are  suggestive  of  Jesus's  use  of 
the  similar  literary  form.  Rabbi  Levi,  in  illus- 
trating the  meaning  of  the  proverb,  "Wisdom  is 
too  high  for  a  fool"  (Prov.  24.  7),  related  the 
following  parable :  "A  man  once  hired  two  serv- 
ants to  fill  a  basket  with  water.  One  of  them 
said,  'Why  should  I  continue  this  useless  labor? 
I  put  water  in  on  one  side,  and  it  immediately 


Methods  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis        1 03 

leaks  out  of  the  other;  what  profit  is  it?'  The 
other  workman,  who  was  wise,  repHed,  'We  have 
tlie  profit  of  the  reward  which  we  receive  for  our 
labor.'  It  is  the  same  in  studying  the  law.  One 
man  says,  'What  does  it  profit  me  to  study  the 
law,  when  I  must  ever  continue  it  or  else  forget 
what  I  have  learned?'  But  the  other  man  re- 
plies, 'God  will  reward  us  for  the  will  which  we 
display,  even  though  we  do  forget.'  " 

The  famous  Rabbi  Jehuda,  who  lived  between 
136  and  217  A.  D.,  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  a 
man  must  be  judged  alike  for  the  acts  of  his  soul 
and  the  acts  of  his  body,  gave  the  following  par- 
able :  "There  was  once  a  king  who  had  a  charm- 
ing park  in  which  were  beautiful  fruit  trees.  He 
placed  in  charge  of  this  park  two  watchers ;  one 
was  lame  and  the  other  blind.  Then  the  lame 
man  said  to  the  blind :  'I  see  beautiful  fruit  in 
the  park.  Come,  take  me  up  on  your  shoulder 
and  we  will  get  some  of  the  fruit  and  eat.'  Then 
the  lame  stood  on  the  shoulder  of  the  blind  man 
and  they  brought  down  some  fruit  and  ate  it. 
After  some  time  the  owner  of  the  park  came. 
He  said  to  them :  'Where  are  the  beautiful  first 
fruits?'  Then  the  lame  man  said  to  him:  'Have 
I  any  legs  with  which  to  climb?'  The  blind 
man  said  to  him :  'Have  I  any  eyes  with  which 
to  see^'  What  did  the  owner  of  the  park  do? 
He  made  the  lame  man  stand  on  the  shoulders  of 
the  blind  man  and  thus  judged  them  both  to- 
gether." 

Another   favorite   form   of   teaching  with   the   Allegories 
rabbis   was   the   allegory.      Each    factor   in   the 
story  symbolized  some  phase  of  truth.     While  it 


1 04        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

commanded  the  interest  and  aroused  the  thought 
of  the  pupils,  the  aUegory  usuahy  required  in- 
terpretation. The  fohowing  is  an  example  of 
this  literary  form  of  teaching:  "A  traveler  upon 
his  journey  passed  through  the  forest  upon  a 
dark  and  gloomy  night.  He  journeyed  in  dread; 
he  feared  the  robbers  who  infested  the  route  he 
was  traversing.  He  feared  that  he  might  fall 
into  some  unseen  ditch  or  pitfall  on  the  way,  and 
he  feared,  too,  the  wild  beasts,  which  were  about 
him.  By  chance  he  discovered  a  pine  torch,  and 
lighted  it,  and  its  gleams  afforded  him  great 
relief.  He  no  longer  feared  brambles  or  pit- 
falls, for  he  could  see  the  way  before  him.  But 
the  dread  of  robbers  and  wild  beasts  was  still 
upon  him,  nor  left  him  until  the  morning's  dawn, 
the  coming  of  the  sun.  Still  he  was  tmcertain  of 
his  way,  until  he  emerged  from  the  forest  and 
reached  the  crossroads,  when  peace  returned  to 
his  heart. 
Interpretation  *'The  darkuess  in  which  this  man  walked  was 

the  lack  of  religious  knowledge.  The  torch  he 
discovered  typifies  God's  precepts,  which  aided 
him  on  his  way  until  he  obtained  the  blessed  sun- 
light, compared  to  God's  holy  word,  the  Bible. 
Still,  while  the  man  is  in  the  forest  (the  world), 
he  is  not  entirely  at  peace ;  his  heart  is  faint,  and 
he  may  lose  the  right  path ;  but  when  he  reaches 
the  crossroads  (death),  then  we  may  proclaim 
him  truly  righteous,  and  exclaim :  'A  good  name 
is  more  fragrant  than  rich  perfume,  and  the  day 
of  death  is  better  than  the  day  of  one's  birth.'  " 

No  one  can  deny  the  value  of  the  teaching 
methods  of  the  scribes,  nor  the  sincerity  and  de- 


Methods  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis        1 05 

votion  of  many  of  their  number.     Their  weak-    strength  and 
nesses    are    equally    patent.      Their    eves    were    Weakness  of  the 

1    .  11  ,  ,'  1  Teaching  of  the 

turned  too  much  to  the  past  rather  than  to  the  scribes 
present  and  future.  Their  teachings  lacked  that 
note  of  authority  and  originality  which  comes 
from  a  close  touch  with  the  vital  problems  and 
needs  of  mankind.  Forgetting  the  teachings  of 
the  earlier  prophets,  they  exalted  the  ritual  and 
ceremonial  acts  above  character  and  deeds.  They 
exemplified  their  own  aphorism :  "Unhappy  is 
he  who  mistakes  the  branch  for  the  tree,  the 
shadow  for  the  substance."  Many  of  them,  how- 
ever, placed  a  strong  emphasis  upon  moral  acts 
and  character,  as  is  well  illustrated  by  the  teach- 
ing: "He  that  has  more  learning  than  good  deeds 
is  like  a  tree  with  many  branches  but  weak  roots ; 
the  first  great  storm  will  throw  it  to  the  ground. 
He  whose  good  works  are  greater  than  his 
knowledge  is  like  a  tree  with  fewer  branches  but 
with  strong  and  spreading  roots,  a  tree  which  all 
the  winds  of  heaven  cannot  uproot."  They  made 
the  further  mistake  of  defining  religion,  not  as 
the  personal  relation  of  the  individual  toward 
God,  but  as  conformity  to  certain  detailed  laws. 
Above  all,  they  made  the  mistake  common  to 
the  teachers  of  many  religions,  of  not  distin- 
guishing clearly  between  that  which  was  vital 
and  eternal  and  that  which  was  trivial  and 
ephemeral. 

The  great  need  of  Judaism,  therefore,  was  for   The  Great  Need 
some  one  to  distinguish  between  the  gold  and   of  Judaism 
the  dross  in  their  inherited  teachings,  to  adapt 
these  ancient  teachings  to  the  lives  of  the  masses, 
to  shake  off  the  clouding  casuistry  of  the  schools, 


1  o6      Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

and  to  present  the  teachings  simply  and  directly. 
A  great  teacher  was  needed  to  speak  positively 
and  with  authority,  to  arouse  within  the  hearts 
of  men  a  deep  love  for  God  and  an  unselfish 
enthusiasm  for  his  service,  to  inspire  the  common 
people  with  faith  in  their  own  powers  and  to  set 
before  them  definite  and  practical  ways  in  which 
they  could  express  their  religious  devotion. 
Most  of  all,  the  race  and  age  needed  one  who' 
w^ould  teach  not  merely  by  w'ord  but  by  deed, 
demonstrating  in  his  ow^n  character  and  life  the 
vital,  eternal  truths  hidden  in  Israel's  sacred 
writings.  In  Jesus  of  Nazareth  that  ancient 
Torah  found  its  complete  expression  and  fulfill- 
ment. 


XI 

THE  TRAINING  AND  AHIS  OF  THE  GREAT 
TEACHER 

To  the  men  of  his  day  Jesus  was  known  under  jesus's  Different 
three  different  titles.  By  many  he  was  addressed  '^^^^^^ 
as  The  Physician,  and  in  his  work  he  certainly 
proved  himself  a  healer  of  men's  bodies  as  well 
as  men's  souls.  This  healing  ministry,  however, 
was  only  a  means  to  an  end,  and  that  end  was 
religious.  By  many  he  was  called  a  Prophet,  and 
this  title  truly  describes  the  spirit  with  which  he 
taught  and  the  content  of  his  message.  He  stood 
on  the  platform  of  such  great  prophets  as  Amos, 
Isaiah,  and  Jeremiah,  and,  like  John  the  Baptist, 
during  the  first  part  of  his  ministry  preached 
with  great  success  and  effectiveness.  It  is  evi- 
dent, however,  that  Jesus  preached  simply  that 
he  might  attract  to  himself  those  with  whom  he 
might  enter  into  the  more  intimate  relation  of 
teacher  and  disciple. 

Rabbi,  or  Teacher,  is,  therefore,  the  most  exact  Preeminently 
and  distinctive  title  which  Jesus  bore,  and  the  one 
most  frequently  on  the  lips  of  those  closely  asso- 
ciated with  him.  Its  counterpart  is  disciple  or 
learner,  the  word  constantly  used  to  describe 
those  whom  he  taught.  Even  the  so-called 
''Sermon  on  the  Mount"  is  introduced  by  the 
significant  statement  that  ''when  Jesus  had  sat" 
"and  his  disciples  had  gathered  about  him,  he 
taught."  The  words  which  follow  are  the  words 
of  a  teacher  rather  than  of  a  preacher. 
107 


the  Teacher 


1  o8        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


His  Emphasis 
Upon  the 
Teaching 
Method 


Gospel 
Testimony 
Regarding 
His  Youthful 
Training 


Jesus  fully  appreciated  the  importance  of  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  those  whom  he  taught. 
His  work  illustrates  the  value  of  that  personal 
contact  and  close  adaptation  of  the  message  to 
those  receiving  it  which  distinguish  the  method 
of  the  teacher  from  that  of  the  preacher.  The 
record  of  Jesus's  brief  ministry  bears  strong  testi- 
mony to  the  fundamental  emphasis  which  he 
placed  upon  his  work  as  a  teacher.  During  the 
closing  days  of  his  lifework  he  turned  aside 
almost  completely  from  the  multitudes,  and, 
abandoning  the  method  of  the  preacher,  devoted 
himself  to  teaching  the  small  group  of  disciples 
who  gathered  about  him.  By  this  act  Jesus  prac- 
tically said  to  all  the  world,  "My  method  is  pre- 
eminently that  of  the  teacher."  The  history  of  the 
opening  Christian  centuries  is  the  vindication  of 
the  superlative  wisdom  and  efifectiveness  of 
Jesus's  method.  The  small  group  of  disciples 
upon  whose  minds  he  impressed  his  spirit,  teach- 
ings, and  personality  went  forth  as  teachers  and 
within  three  or  four  -centuries  conquered  the 
great  Roman  Empire.  It  is  also  important  to 
note  that  in  the  later  history  of  Christianity  the 
periods  of  great  advance  have  come  when  the 
Church,  as  at  the  time  of  the  Protestant  Refor- 
mation, has  placed  the  Bible  in  the  hands  of  the 
masses  and  laid  its  supreme  emphasis  on  the 
teaching  ministry. 

The  Gospels  devote  only  a  few  verses  to  the 
account  of  Jesus's  training  as  a  teacher.  Their 
testimony,  however,  is  exceedingly  valuable  and 
suggestive,  for  it  states  that  "he  advanced  in 
wisdom  and  stature,  as  well  as  in  favor  with  God 


Training  and  Aims  of  the  Great  Teacher     1 09 

and  man."  This  testimony  leaves  no  doubt  that 
Jesus's  growth  in  knowledge,  experience,  and 
skill  as  a  teacher  was  gradual  and  progressive, 
even  as  was  his. physical  growth.  This  conclu- 
sion is  confirmed  by  the  rare  portrait  of  the  boy 
when  at  the  age  of  twelve  he  went  up  with  his 
parents  to  worship  at  the  temple.  It  reveals  not 
an  egotistical  youth,  as  some  careless  interpreters 
would  suggest,  but  a  thoroughly  normal  boy, 
keenly  intent  upon  acquiring  knowledge,  improv- 
ing to  the  fullest  extent  the  opportunity  offered 
by  asking  questions  of  the  accepted  teachers  of 
his  race.  The  insight  and  interest  revealed  by 
his  questions  alone  excited  surprise.  His  zeal 
for  knowledge  was  so  intense  that  in  pursuit  of 
it  he  even  called  down  upon  his  head  the  reproof 
of  his  parents. 

It  takes  little  imagination,  in  the  light  of  the  influences  of 
records  of  Jesus's  later  work  and  teaching,  to 
trace  the  different  influences  which,  in  keeping 
with  God's  good  purpose,  entered  into  the  train- 
ing of  the  Great  Teacher.  Nazareth,  situated 
in  the  midst  of  one  of  the  garden  lands  of 
Palestine,  furnished  a  fitting  background.  Here 
he  was  in  closest  touch  with  nature  and  the 
exquisite  revelations  of  God's  divine  care  and 
love  for  his  children.  The  height  just  above  the 
town  commanded  a  view  of  the  wide,  level  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  of  Mount  Gilboa,  of  the  hills  of 
Samaria,  and  of  Mount  Carmel,  jutting  out  into 
the  great  sea  at  the  west.  To  a  loyal  student  of 
Israel's  past,  this  view  suggested  many  of  the 
great  battles  and  crises  in  Israel's  unique  history. 
Nazareth    itself,    instead    of   being    a    provincial 


Nazareth 


I  1 0       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Of  the  Home  at 
Nazareth 


Of  the 

Synagogue  at 
Nazareth 


little  town,  was  one  of.  the  larger  cities  of  Galilee. 
It  was  intersected  by  the  great  highways 
which  ran  across  Galilee  from  the  north  and 
east,  and  was  only  a  few  miles  from  Caper- 
naum, the  metropolis  of  the  north.  In  Naz- 
areth, the  different  currents  of  Semitic,  Greek, 
and  Roman  life  and  culture  met  and  blended. 
The  town,  with  its  teeming  life,  was  like 
Galilee,  a  type  of  the  larger  world  to  which 
it  belonged.  The  town  itself  still  possessed  the 
characteristics  of  an  oriental  village,  in  which 
the  affairs  of  all  its  members  were  common 
property  and  the  book  of  life,  revealing  the  vari- 
ous human  motives,  temptations,  ambitions,  and 
needs,  was  spread  out  wide  before  the  eyes  of 
him  who  would  read. 

The  home  at  Nazareth  also  presented  even 
greater  opportunities  for  the  intimate  study  of 
the  heart  of  man.  Apparently  the  early  death 
of  the  father  brought  the  oldest  son,  Jesus,  to 
a  position  of  responsibility,  and  through  the  lips 
of  his  brothers  and  sisters,  and  his  strong  love 
and  loyalty  to  them,  he  gained  a  perfect  and 
unique  knowledge  of  the  psychological  char- 
acteristics of  man,  so  that,  as  one  of  the  gospel 
writers  truly  states,  there  was  no  need  that  any- 
one should  tell  him  what  was  in  the  heart  of 
men,  for  that  knowledge  was  his  already. 

The  Sabbath  services  at  the  synagogue  intro- 
duced him  from  early  boyhood  to  the  great  writ- 
ings of  the  prophets  and  the  priests,  and  brought 
to  him  the  illuminating  interpretations  of  resi- 
dent and  visiting  scholars.  It  is  probable  also 
that  at  this  time  the  synagogue  schools  were  al- 


Training  and  Aims  of  the  Great  Teacher      1  1  I 

ready  established  throughout  the  more  important 
cities  of  GaHlee,  so  that  when  Jesus  at  twelve 
went  up  to  Jerusalem  he  was  accustomed  to  sit- 
ting at  the  feet  of  the  teachers  of  the  law  and 
the  prophets  and  of  asking  those  questions  which 
aroused  the  admiration  of  the  bystanders. 

Jesus  lived  in  a  literary  age,  and  there  is  little  of  Israel's 
doubt  that  he  was  able  to  read  and  had  access  to  ^^^'^ 
the  scriptures  of  his  race.  At  every  point  he 
shows  thorough  acquaintance  with  these  ancient 
writings.  It  is  the  acquaintance  not  merely  of 
the  hearer,  but  of  the  student.  Jesus  was  so 
familiar  with  the  contents  of  Israel's  law,  that 
in  answer  to  the  sudden  question,  "Which  is  the 
great  commandment  in  the  law?"  he  was  able  to 
synthesize  the  entire  ancient  system  by  singling 
out  two  laws,  one  in  Deuteronomy  6.  5  and  the 
other  in  Leviticus  19.  18,  which  embodied  all  that 
was  most  vital  in  the  legal  literature  of  his  race. 

With  the  events  of  Israel's  history  he  was  of  the  Historical 
intimately  acquainted.  The  words  and  messages  and  Prophetic 
of  prophets,  like  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  were  on 
his  lips  and  in  his  heart.  Although  there  is  little 
direct  evidence,  it  is  clear  that  the  marvelous 
ideal  of  service  contained  in  the  fortieth  and 
following  chapters  of  Isaiah  exerted  a  great 
influence  in  shaping  the  ideals  of  the  young  man 
of  Nazareth.  In  all  his  lifework  and  teaching 
he  illustrated  that  conception  of  unselfish,  un- 
flinching service  which  hesitated  not  in  the  face 
of  misunderstanding,  opposition,  and  shame,  but 
was  ready  to  give  all  in  order  to  touch  the  hearts 
of  men  and  so  lead  them  into  intelligent  love 
and  service  of  the  Divine  Father. 


Of  the  Psalms 
and  Wisdom 
Books 


Of  the  Methods 
of  the  Sages 


Use  of  Proverbs 


Question  and 

Answer 


1  1  2        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

In  the  great  crises  of  his  hfe  his  feehngs  were 
expressed  in  the  language  of  those  psahriists  who 
had,  hke  himself,  passed  through  the  shadow  of 
the  valley  of  death.  The  sages,  also,  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  upon  the  one  who  described 
himself  as  ''the  greater  than  Solomon."  In  many 
of  the  Old  Testament  proverbs  are  found  those 
figures  and  germinal  ideas  which  are  so  exqui- 
sitely developed  in  the  familiar  parables  of  the 
New  Testament. 

It  was,  however,  in  the  form  of  his  teachings 
that  Jesus  drew  most  from  the  sages,  of  Israel's 
past.  Like  them,  he  spoke  not  to  the  nation  but 
to  the  individual.  His  appeal  was  to  the  young 
as  well  as  to  the  old.  He  endeavored  by  the  lit- 
erary form  as  well  as  by  the  content  of  his  teach- 
ings to  arrest  men's  attention,  to  kindle  their 
imagination,  and  to  shape  their  ideals. 

During  the  early  part  of  his  ministry  most  of 
his  teachings  were  cast  in  the  form  of  proverbs 
which  stick  forever  in  the  memory.  Thus  he 
declared : 

If  any  one  would  be  first. 
Let   him  of  all  be  the  last, 
And  of  all  the  servant. 

Salt  is  good,  but  if  salt  lose  its  saltness 
Wherewith  will  ye  salt  it? 

Have  salt  in  yourselves. 

And  have  peace  with  each  other. 

The  stirring  figures  of  speech  which  he  used, 
as,  for  example,  "the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees," 
or,  "sounding  the  trumpet  before  thee,"  or  the 
"lost  sheep  of  the  house  of  Israel,"  suggest  the 
pregnant    symbols    employed   by    Israel's   sages. 


Training  and  Aims  of  the  Great  Teacher      1  1  3 

Like  the  sages  and  rabbis,  he  also  frequently 
flung  a  question  into  the  midst  of  his  disciples  to 
arouse  their  interest  and  to  make  them  think. 
''Who  do  the  multitudes  say  that  I  am?"  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  still  more  suggestive  question,  *'But 
what  say  ye  that  I  am?" 

Like  the  sage  who  has  given  us  the  first  psalm  Beatitudes 
with  its  opening  beatitude,  Jesus  also  endeavored 
to  set  definite  goals  before  his  disciples,  and,  like 
the  ancient  decalogue-makers,  to  embody  in  a 
few  vivid  statements  the  essential  truths  of  life. 
A  beatitude  was  in  its  original  form  an  exclama- 
tory sentence  which  left  little  opportunity  for 
difference  or  discussion.  It  simply  called  atten- 
tion to  a  fundamental  principle  of  life,  as,  for 
example,  "Oh,  the  blessedness  of  the  pure  in 
heart,  for  they  shall  see  God,"  or  (as  it  may 
riiore  properly  be  read  in  the  original),  "for  they, 
indeed,  are  seeing  God" ;  or,  "Oh,  the  blessed- 
ness of  the  whole-makers,  the  harmony-makers, 
the  completeness-makers  (developing  the  original 
meaning  of  the  Aramaic  verb),  for  they  shall  be 
called,  and  indeed  are,  the  children  of  God." 

Sometimes,   like   the   rabbis,  Jesus   taught  his   Prayers 
disciples  prayers  to  guide  them,  to  inculcate  the 
spirit  of  worship,  and  to  embody  the  essence  of 
his  teaching. 

During  the  latter  part  of  his  ministry  he  com-  Parables 
monly  employed  the  parable,  which  was  really  an 
amplified  comparison  and  contained  a  story  in- 
tended to  set  forth  a  definite  spiritual  lesson.  Its 
aim  was  not  to  conceal  but  to  reveal  truth.  It  is 
important  to  note  that  a  parable  is  not  an  alle- 
gory with  all  parts  equally .  symbolic  and  signi- 


Allegories 


Paradoxes 


Hyperboles 


Debt  to  Earlier 
Teachers 


1  I  4         Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

ficant,  but  that  it  simply  emphasizes  one  central 
teaching.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  story  of  the 
sower  who  went  out  to  sow,  the  whole  emphasis 
is  on  the  importance  of  the  right  disposition  and 
use  of  true  instruction. 

It  is  only  in  the  Fourth  Gospel  that  the  reader 
gains  the  impression  that  Jesus  at  times  used 
the  allegory,  as,  for  example,  that  of  the  true 
vine  with  its  branches,  in  which  a  definite  signifi- 
cance is  attributed  to  each  element. 

Like  the  sages,  Jesus  also  appreciated  the  value 
of  the  paradox  as  a  means  of  arousing  men's 
curiosity  and  compelling  them  to  think.  Thus, 
he  declared,  ''Whoever  wishes  to  save  his  life 
will  lose  it,"  and  "Whoever  for  my  sake  and  for 
the  sake  of  the  gospel  will  lose  his  life  shall 
save  it" ;  or,  ''If  anyone  wishes  to  be  first,  he 
must  be  last  of  all  and  servant  of  all." 

Finally,  in  his  zeal  to  emphasize  that  which  was 
vital,  Jesus  did  not  hesitate  to  use  the  hyperbole, 
as,  for  example,  the  figure  of  the  camel  passing 
through  the  eye  of  a  needle,  or  of  cutting  off  the 
hand  if  it  proved  a  snare.  He  trusted  to  his 
teaching  at  other  times  to  correct  the  wrong  im- 
pression that  might  be  conveyed  through  the  use 
of  the  hyperbole. 

Thus,  while  Jesus  blended  all  that  was  vital 
and  eternal  in  the  teachings  of  prophets,  priests, 
and  sages  and  brought  their  imperfect  teachings 
to  perfect  expression,  he  employed  most  fre- 
quently the  methods  and  literary  forms  of  those 
quiet,  earnest  lovers  of  men,  the  sages  of  ancient 
Israel. 

In  formulating  Jesus's  aims  as  a  teacher  one 


Training  and  Aims  of  the  Great  Teacher     I  1  5 


is  impressed  with  the  absence  in  the  oldest  records   Definiteness 
of  any  aUusion  to  certain  aims   which   have   in   ^^^ 

.  '       .  .  11-111         Concreteness 

the  past  been  given  a  central  place  m  the  thought  of  His  Aims 
and  creeds  of  many  of  the  Christian  churches. 
There  is  no  suggestion,  for  example,  of  an  en- 
deavor to  appease  an  angry  God.  The  God  of 
Jesus's  teaching  was  the  Father  revealed  in  the 
parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  intensely  eager 
to  receive  back  and  pardon  the  sinner  if  only  he 
turned  in  the  attitude  of  sincere  repentance.  As 
Jesus  himself  distinctly  declared,  his  mission  was 
primarily  to  "the  lost  sheep  of  the  house  of 
Israel."  These  were  the  humble,  common  people 
of  Judea  and  Galilee,  who  because  of  their  occu- 
pations and  lack  of  knowledge  and  training  were 
unable  to  conform  to  the  rigorous,  almost  im- 
possible demands  of  the  ceremonial  laws  of  later 
Judaism.  His  mission,  therefore,  was  not  some- 
thing abstract  and  impersonal,  but  to  teach  and 
help  certain  men  and  women  whose  great  moral 
and  spiritual  needs  appealed  to  him  and  whose 
lives  he  was  able  to  transform,  and  through  their 
transformed  lives  to  teach  and  so  reach  humanity. 

Hence  Jesus's  first  aim  was   to   save   certain    Aimed  to 
men  and  women,  some  of  whose  names  w^e  know,   deliver  Men 
from  the  pain  and  physical  suffering  which  handi- 
capped them  in  the  quest  of  that  greater  happi- 
ness which  he  declared  to  be  one  of  the  supreme 
goals  of  life. 

In  the  second  place,  he  aimed  to  save  them   to  Give  Them 
from  that  ignorance  of  God's  character  and  pur-   the  La^rger  and 
poses    which    could    be    dispelled    only    by    true 
knowledge.     As  a  result  of  the  changed  political 
conditions    amid    which    thev    found    themselves 


Truer  Idea  of 
God 


1  1  6        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


To  Inspire  a 
Serene  Trust  in 
God 


To  Help  Men  to 
Overcome  Their 
Individual 
Temptations 


in  the  days  following  the  exile,  the  Jews,  and 
even  their  acknowledged  teachers,  had  largely 
lost  sight  of  the  God  of  the  earlier  prophets. 
Jehovah,  like  the  monarchs  who  ruled  from  dis- 
tant Persia  or  Rome,  was  conceived  of  as  living 
apart  from  his  people  and  communicating  with 
them  only  through  his  angelic  messengers.  His 
demands  were  also  interpreted  largely  in  the 
terms  of  form  and  ceremony  and  ritual,  so  that 
ordinary  men  and  women  had  little  hope  of  enter- 
ing into  the  presence  of  this  Divine  King  of 
popular  belief.  Jesus  aimed,  therefore,  to  sweep 
aside  this  barrier  and,  again  like  the  ancient 
prophets,  to  introduce  each  individual  to  the 
Divine  Father.  He  sought  to  present  God  as 
the  embodiment  of  truth  and  love,  the  one  su- 
preme personality  seeking  to  express  himself  not 
merely  in  the  realm  of  external  nature,  but 
through  the  hearts  and  lives  of  faithful  men  and 
women. 

Jesus's  third  aim  was  to  save  men  from  false 
and  paralyzing  fears,  to  teach  them  to  take  no 
anxious  thought  of  the  morrow,  to  recognize  the 
harmonious  purpose  which  guided  all  life,  ever 
to  trust  implicitly  the  all-wise  and  loving  Father, 
and  thus  to  find  peace  and  harmony  and  strength. 

His  fourth  aim  was  to  save  men  from  yielding 
to  the  temptations  which  come  thick  and  fast 
to  every  man  and  woman ;  to  help  them  to  over- 
come the  passions  which  swept  over  them ;  to  save 
the  haughty  tax-collector  from  his  greed;  the 
woman  of  the  streets  from  those  influences  that 
had  laid  an  almost  irresistible  hold  upon  her,  and 
to  enable  strong  men,  like  Judas  Iscariot,  to  listen 


Training  and  Aims  of  the  Great  Teacher      1  1  7 

to  the  higher  and  diviner  ideals  that  were  striig- 
ghng  within  them  against  the  lower  ideals  and 
tendencies.  He  sought  to  save  men  from  that 
selfishness  and  pettiness  which  was  character- 
istic of  the  life  of  the  fishermen,  and  of  the  men 
who  tilled  the  fields,  and  to  implant  within  them 
nobler  and  transforming  ideals,  that  thus  they 
might  have  life,  and  that  abundantly. 

In  the  fifth  place,  Jesus  sought  to  arouse  those   To  Make 
whom  he  tauoht  to  an  appreciation  of  the  dutv   Effective 

,       .         ,  r  '  1  1  1'      Citizens  of  the 

and  the  beauty  of  servmg  not  themselves,  but  Kingdom  of  c-od 
their  fellow  men ;  of  striving  not  for  their  own 
wealth,  but  for  the  commonwealth ;  of  finding 
their  life  by  losing  it.  In  these  definite  ways  he 
aimed  to  train  up  citizens  for  the  kingdom  of 
God,  that  world-democracy,  that  universal  fel- 
lowship in  which  all  should  be  bound  together 
by  the  common  love  and  service  of  a  common 
Father. 

Finally,   Jesus  sought  to   train,   as   the   active   to  Train 
agfents  in  realizing:  his  aims  in  the  life  of  the  indi-   Teachers  Liks 

?,       ,  1     .  ,         ,-r  r  •  1  1-1         Himself 

vidual  and  ni  the  life  of  society,  teachers  like 
himself,  inspired  with  his  spirit,  possessed  of  his 
teachings,  stirred  with  his  enthusiasm,  and  en- 
dowed with  his  courage  to  go  forth  as  the  incar- 
nation of  all  for  which  he  lived.  He  gave  his 
life  that  they  might  in  turn,  by  the  quiet  yet 
invincible  methods  of  the  teacher,  win  those  with 
whom  they  personally  came  into  contact,  and  thus 
through  an  ever-widening  circle  teach  and  trans- 
form all  mankind. 


XII 


Jesus'  Supreme 
Skill  as  a 
Teacher 


His  Refusal  to 
Commit  His 
Teachings  to 
"Writing 


JESUS'S  WAY  OF  MAKING  MEN 

The  study  of  Jesus's  work  as  a  teacher  con- 
firms the  conckision  that  he  gave  careful  attention 
to  the  methods  which  he  employed.  His  skill 
was  the  result  of  no  chance,  but  of  a  deliberate 
choice  of  methods.  In  his  knowledge  of  what 
was  in  the  heart  of  man  and  in  his  superb  adapta- 
tion of  his  teachings  to  individual  needs  and  pos- 
sibilities and  to  the  ultimate  ends  which  he  wished 
to  accomplish,  he  was  indeed  a  great  pioneer  in 
all  that  is  best  in  the  modern  educational  move- 
ment. A  study,  therefore,  of  his  teaching  meth- 
ods is  supremely  suggestive  and  illuminating. 

At  first  glance  the  student  is  surprised  to  note 
that,  although  he  was  undoubtedly  familiar  with 
writing,  Jesus  apparently  never  employed  this 
means  of  imparting  his  message.  Most  of  the 
earlier  teachers  of  his  race  had  trusted  largely 
to  the  written  word.  The  contemporary  plii- 
?.osophers  and  teachers  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
through  the  services  of  slaves  who  acted  as  copy- 
ists, published  thousands  of  copies  of  their  works 
and  scattered  them  widely  throughout  the  great 
empire.  The  age  in  which  Jesus  lived  was  pre- 
eminently a  literary  era.  He,  however,  deliber- 
ately refrained  from  trusting  his  message  to 
stereotyped  literary  molds.  In  so  doing  he  fol- 
lowed the  methods  of  the  Jewish  rabbis  of  his 
day.  His  action  was  clearly  not  due  to  imita- 
tion but  to  deliberate  intention.  He  knew,  by 
118 


Jesus*s  Way  of  Making  Men  1  1  9 

observation  and  hearing,  how  easy  it  was  to  mis- 
interpret the  written  words  even  of  the  earHer 
teachers  of  his  race.  He  probably  also  knew  how 
often  the  written  text  had  suffered  corruption  or 
else  had  been  made  the  medium  in  the  hand  of 
later  scribes  and  teachers  for  establishing  the 
creeds  and  doctrines  current  in  his  own  days. 

Jesus's  reason,  therefore,   for  not  committing  Teachings 
his  teachings  to  writing-  is  perfectlv  evident.     It   inscribed  on 

1  11  T  1   •  ir     1-  -'  r      1      1      J.     Human  Hearts 

IS  also  clear  that  Jesus  himself  dia  not  feel  that  and  Lives 
he  was  promulgating  a  new  system  of  teaching. 
Rather  his  purpose  was  to  give  a  fuller  and  more 
complete  expression  to  all  that  was  of  vital  and 
lasting  value  in  the  teachings  of  the  earlier 
prophets,  priests,  and  sages.  In  the  minds  and 
hearts  and  lives  of  men  he  wrote  down  his  mes- 
sage to  humanity,  and  upon  the  disciples  whom 
he  gathered  about  him  he  stamped  the  ideals 
which  he  sought  to  impress  upon  the  sons  of 
men.  Set  forth  in  living  forms,  incarnate  in 
human  lives,  the  teachings  of  Jesus  were  im- 
perishable. Even  if  the  early  Christians  had  not 
at  a  later  time  collected  the  memorabilia  and  say- 
ings of  Jesus,  those  teachings  and  the  fruits  of 
his  lifework  would  still  continue  to  touch  and 
transform  the  life  of  humanity.  Long  before 
the  child  born  in  Christian  homes  to-day  is  able 
to  read  the  written  word,  the  ideals  and  the 
teachings  of  the  Great  Teacher  shape  the  unfold- 
ing life,  and  stamp  the  fundamental  principles  of 
Christianity  upon  the  impressionable  spirit  of 
the  child. 

The  first  characteristic  of  Jesus's  method  as  a 
teacher  was  the  result  of  his  unique  insight  into 


1  20        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Recognition  of 
the  Divine 
Possibilities  in 
Each  Man 


the  divine  possibilities  latent  in  those  men  and 
women  whom  he  in  time  gradually  transformed 
into  disciples  and  ultimately  into  teachers.  To 
the  other  men  of  their  day,  James  and  John 
seemed  but  rude,  commonplace  fishermen,  who 
had  reached  a  period  of  life  when  habits  and 
ideals  are  ordinarily  crystallized.  Simon  the 
Zealot,  with  his  dreams  of  a  great  uprising  against 
Rome  and  his  eagerness  to  resort  to  violence, 
was  the  anarchist  of  his  day.  No  other  man 
would  have  seen  in  him  aught  besides  the  possi- 
bilities of  revolution  and  ultimate  self-destruc- 
tion. For  the  fallen  woman  of  the  street  there 
seemed  no  hope.  Zaccheeus  the  tax  collector,  who 
held  the  same  place  in  public  opinion  as  does  the 
saloon  keeper  of  to-day,  seemed  only  bent  on 
attaining  his  own  selfish  ends  at  the  expense  of 
society.  Yet  Jesus  saw  the  possibility  that  all 
these  outcasts  might  become  martyrs  for  a  great 
cause.  In  others  he  recognized  teachers  of  such 
efficiency  that  they  would  conquer  the  seemingly 
impregnable  Roman  world.  ]\Iore  than  that, 
Jesus  was  able  to  impress  upon  their  unawakened 
consciousness  the  possibility  and  the  glory  of  thus 
finding  life  by  losing  it.  By  his  simple  yet  mar- 
velous method  of  training  he  was  also  able  to 
prepare  them  for  their  great  lifework — to  trans- 
form the  mercenary  James  and  John  into  fishers 
of  men,  the  fiery  Simon  Zelotes  into  a  conqueror 
by  the  sword  of  the  Spirit,  and  Zacchseus,  the 
corrupt  tax-collector,  into  a  man  whose  supreme 
ambition  was  to  discharge  his  obligations  to  his 
fellow  men. 
The  second  characteristic  of  Jesus's  method  as 


Jesus* s  Way  of  Making  Men  1  2  1 

a  teacher  of  men  was  to  establish  between  himself    The  Basis  of 
and  those  whom  he  would  teach  a  close  personal    Personal  Trust 
relationship  of  simple  trust,  friendship,  and  love.    ^       re    s  ip 
With  superlative  wisdom  he  never  attempted  to 
reach  the  hearts  of  men  when  physical  and  mental 
barriers  made  that  attempt  impossible  of  realiza- 
tion.    If  a  man  or  woman  was  afflicted  by  some 
mental  disorder^  the  first  step  was  to  bring  sanity 
and   harmony   into   the   disordered  mind.      If   a 
physical  trouble  clouded  the  mental  and  spiritual 
vision,  Jesus  exerted  all  the  powers  of  his  own 
personality  to  remove  this  obstacle  and,  in  remov- 
ing it,  to  establish  that  relationship  of  trust  and 
gratitude  which  was  essential  to  his  healing  min- 
istry. 

In  the  light  of  this  higher  aim  in  all  of  his  work,  Meaning  of  i-iis 
it  is  easy  to  appreciate  the  real  significance  of  the  ^""'^  of  Heaimg 
miracles  attributed  to  him  in  the  Gospels.  The 
variations  between  these  dififerent  narratives  leave 
little  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  careful  student 
that  they  have  often  been  modified  in  the  process 
of  oral  transmission  or  by  the  mistaken  popular 
interpretation  of  Jesus's  actual  work  and  aims. 
Yet  back  of  these  variant  traditions  lie  historical 
facts  whose  reality  cannot  for  a  moment  be  ques- 
tioned. In  the  light  of  modern  psycholog}-  and 
mental  hygiene,  the  scientific  world,  which  a 
generation  ago  was  inclined  to  reject  the  gospel 
miracles,  is  beginning  to  discover  the  deeper 
foundations  upon  which  they  clearly  rest.  The 
fundamental  principles  of  which  they  are  but 
the  illustration,  as,  for  example,  the  mighty  power 
of  a  commanding  mind  over  one  mentally  dis- 
abled, are  to-day  widely  accepted  facts.    Clearly 


1  22        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Adaptation  of 
Teachings  to 
Disciples 


one  of  Jesus's  primary  aims  was  to  gain  the  con- 
fidence of  the  men  and  women  whom  he  would 
help,  and  thus,  in  the  language  of  psychology,  to 
render  them  suggestible.  In  accomplishing  this 
end,  his  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  and  the 
possibilities  of  the  human  heart  and  mind,  his 
commanding  love  for  all  his  fellow^s,  and  his  own 
unique  personality  gave  him  a  mighty  power  over 
both  the  mental  and  the  physical  ills  of  men.  It  is 
important,  however,  to  note  in  this  age,  when  so 
much  emphasis  is  being  placed,  and  not  without 
reason,  on  physical  and  mental  healing,  that  Jesus 
always  regarded  this  w^ork  simply  as  the  first 
essential  in  setting  right  men's  souls.  His 
recorded  acts  and  teachings  always  carried  with 
them  the  implication  that  the  only  absolute  es- 
sential was  the  righting  of  men's  attitude  toward 
God  and  their  fellow  men. 

A  third  characteristic  of  Jesus's  method  is  that 
he  always  adapted  his  teachings  to  the  point  of 
view  of  his  hearers.  By  keen  observation  and 
deep  personal  experience  he  knew  what  was  in 
the  hearts  and  minds  of  men.  He  always  felt 
keenly  the  individual  needs  of  those  to  whom  he 
at  the  moment  was  speaking.  He  met  universal 
needs  primarily  by  devoting  himself  to  meeting 
the  immediate  needs  of  the  men  and  women 
before  him.  The  greater  the  height  to  which  he 
wished  to  carry  his  disciples,  the  more  careful  he 
was  to  start  on  their  own  level  and  to  impress 
his  teachings  in  language  both  familiar  and  in- 
telligible to  them.  If  they  were  fishermen,  he 
began  with  a  figure  drawn  from  the  ordinary  life 
of  a  fisherman.     If  they  were  tillers  of  the  soil. 


Jesus's  Way  of  Making  Men  1  23 

he  told  them  the  story  of  the  man  who  went  out 
to  sow.  If  it  was  an  oriental  woman,  with  her 
narrow,  constricted  vision  of  life,  he  began  with 
the  home,  and  told  of  the  anxiety  and  sorrow- 
caused  by  the  loss  of  a  piece  of  money  and  the 
zeal  expended  in  its  quest.  Thus  from  everyday 
experiences  he  led  his  hearers  to  the  grasp  of 
eternal  and  universal  principles.  The  ''point  of 
contact"  is  rightly  a  shibboleth  in  modern  edu- 
cation ;  but  its  value  is  not  a  new  discovery,  for  it 
was  fully  appreciated  by  the  Great  Teacher,  as 
is  shown  in  all  his  work. 

Jesus  also  realized  the  superlative  importance  Puttting  Truth 
of  expressing  spiritual  truths  not  in  abstract  but  p„^°""^'^ 
in  concrete  form.  The  notes  which  come  from 
his  classroom  are  illustrated  on  every  page  with 
simple,  graphic,  suggestive  pictures.  Instead  of 
emphasizing  in  abstract  terms  the  value  of  for- 
giveness, he  commanded  his  disciples,  when  they 
were  about  to  go  up  to  the  temple,  first  to  turn 
back  and  forgive  the  brother  who  had  wronged 
them,  that  they  might  be  able  to  worship  God 
truly,  in  spirit  and  in  deed,  as  well  as  in  form. 
Instead  of  emphasizing  the  beauty  of  humility,  he 
told  his  Jewish  hearers,  who  were  more  familiar 
with  the  synagogue  than  with  any  other  institu- 
tion in  their  midst,  always  to  take  not  the  higher 
but  the  lower  place.  From  a  concrete  illustra- 
tion like  this,  he  frequently  rose  to  the  statement 
of  the  underlying  principle.  Even  so  he  here 
declared  that  everyone  who  exalts  himself  shall 
be  humbled  and  he  who  humbles  himself  shall  be 
exalted.  Like  the  ancient  priests  in  their  definite 
laws,  he  embodied  the  specific  principle  in  a  con- 


1  24        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


Teaching 
Always  Positive 


Crete  case,  frequently  leaving  it  to  his  hearers 
to  formulate  the  principle  itself  and  to  apply  it 
to  the  similar  problems  and  conditions  of  life. 

Like  the  prophets  and  priests,  Jesus  was  always 
keenly  alive  to  the  value  of  the  objective  method 
of  teaching.  He  realized  that  truth  could  often 
best  be  conveyed  not  through  the  ear  but 
through  the  eye.  JNIany  of  his  acts  of  heal- 
ing were  clearly  intended  to  be  vivid  object 
lessons,  appealing  to  the  curiosity  and  imagina- 
tion and  wonderment  of  all  classes.  When  he 
desired  to  teach  the  necessity  and  beauty  of 
simple  trust,  he  set  a  child  in  the  midst  of  his 
hearers.  When  he  wished  to  stir  the  conscience 
of  the  nation  and  to  rebuke  the  grafters  of  his 
own  day  for  desecrating  the  temple,  he  did  not 
content  himself  with  mere  words,  but  with 
scourge  in  hand  overturned  the  tables  of  the 
money-changers.  When  the  disciples  of  John 
the  Baptist  came  to  him  with  the  question,  "Who 
art  thou?"  he  did  not  make  the  mistake  of  giv- 
ing a  spoken  answer  which  would  be  misunder- 
stood, but  invited  them  to  listen  to  his  teachings, 
to  watch  his  deeds  of  helpfulness  and  healing, 
and  thus  through  their  eyes  as  well  as  their  ears 
receive  that  message  which  he  wished  them  to 
bear  back  to  the  intrepid  herald  of  the  new  era. 

Another  striking  characteristic  of  Jesus's 
method  is  the  fact  that  he  always  put  his  teach- 
ings in  positive  form.  The  teachers  of  ancient 
Israel  had  largely  used  *'Thou  shalt  not" ;  but  this 
phrase  is  very  rare  among  the  recorded  words 
of  Jesus.  Only  once  or  twice  did  he  resort  to 
denunciation,  and  by  some  modern  scholars  the 


Jesus*s  Way  of  Making  Men  1  25 

authenticity  even  of  these  passages  is  questioned. 
With  superlative  skill,  he  always  presented  the 
larger  and  fuller  truth,  and  trusted  that  the  errors 
and  the  half-truths  would  as  a  result  find  their 
rightful  place.  His  great  watchword  was,  *'You 
shall  know  the  truth,  and  the  truth  shall  make  you 
free."  This  cliaracteristic  of  Jesus's  method  is 
one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  his  surpassing 
skill  as  a  teacher.  jNIaurice  has  truly  said,  "One 
is  usually  right  in  his  affirmations  and  wrong  in 
his  negations."  In  the  attitude  of  the  acknowl- 
edged teachers  of  Judaism  and  in  the  content  of 
their  teaching,  there  was  a  vast  amount  of  error, 
and  much  to  provoke  attack  and  criticism.  But, 
with  eye  intent  only  on  the  vital  needs  of  the  men 
and  women  wdiom  he  wished  to  reach,  Jesus  had 
little  time  or  desire  merely  to  destroy  or  tear 
down.  He  himself  plainly  declares  that  his  aim 
was  not  to  destroy  the  Torah,  the  teachings  of 
Israel's  prophets,  priests,  and  sages,  as  well  as 
of  the  rabbis  of  his  own  day,  but  to  substitute 
perfection  for  imperfection,  and  thus  to  bring- 
to  its  natural  and  complete  fruition  that  divine 
revelation  which  had  gradually  unfolded  through 
the  enlightened  consciousness  of  his  race.  It  is 
this  strong  positive  note  which  characterizes 
Jesus's  teachings  from  beginning  to  end,  and  dis- 
tinguishes him  from  the  rest  of  the  world's 
teachers.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why 
Christianity's  message  is  universally,  perennially, 
and  supremely  effective. 

In  the  minds  of  his  own  contemporaries,  the   clear, 
distinctive  characteristic  of  Jesus's  method  was   Authoritative 
its   ringing  note   of   authority.     It  was  not  the 


1  26       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

authority  which  rested  simply  on  the  testimony 
of  the  past,  giving  to  the  ancient  teachings  the 
commanding  position  in  the  thought  and  hfe  of 
the  present  and  future ;  nor  was  it  the  authority 
of  dogmatism  which  ordinarily  conceals  doubt 
in  the  mind  of  the  hearer  and  provokes  suspicion 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  hear.  Rather  it  was 
an  authority  based  on  a  profound  knowledge  of 
life  and  of  human  needs,  on  keen  personal  obser- 
vation, and  on  a  rich  and  varied  personal  spiritual 
experience.  Jesus's  authority  was  akin  to  that  of 
the  ancient  prophets  and  sages,  but  superlative  in 
degree.  He  frankly  declared,  regarding  the 
future,  "no  man  knows  save  the  Father,"  but  of 
the  great  vital  truths  of  life,  as  they  had  been 
revealed  to  his  wide-open  mind,  he  spoke  with 
that  calm,  commanding  authority  which  sug- 
gested the  eternal  foundations  upon  which  it 
rested.  To  the  rabbis,  who  exalted  to  a  position 
of  supreme  importance  the  words  attributed  by 
tradition  to  Moses,  he  declared,  in  speaking  of 
certain  laws,  ''Ye  have  heard  that  it  has  been 
said  .  .  .  but  I  say  to  you."  Calmly,  without 
discussion,  Jesus  thus  substituted  the  whole  for 
the  part,  the  great  underlying  principles  for  their 
earlier  incomplete  expression.  From  the  open- 
minded  among  his  hearers  the  authority  of  his 
message  commanded  immediate  and  complete 
acceptance,  not  only  because  of  the  personality 
back  of  it,  but  because  it  rang  absolutely  true  to 
the  most  enlightened  experiences  and  met  the 
eternal  and  universal  needs  of  the  human  heart. 
Constant  Appeal  Again,  ouc  is  profouudly  impressed  by  the 
to  the  Will  f^(,^    ^i^^^    Jesus    never   contented    himself    with 


Jesus*s  Way  of  Making  Men  1  2  7 

appealing  to  the  reason  alone.  His  logic  was 
simple,  clear,  and  irresistible.  The  scribes,  the 
most  skillful  dialecticians  of  his  day,  came  to  him 
with  very  carefully  prepared  questions  intended 
to  entrap  him,  but  they  ahvays  went  away  van- 
quished by  his  clear,  powerful  reasoning,  even 
though  the  battle  was  waged  in  their  chosen  field 
and  with  their  chosen  weapons.  He  who  knew 
what  was  in  the  heart  of  man,  w^ith  his  strong 
commanding  love  for  the  individual,  with  his  un- 
stinted services  in  meeting  the  needs  of  those 
w  ho  came  to  him,  w"as  able  to  appeal  to  the  deep- 
est feelings  and  to  play  wath  marvelous  skill  upon 
the  strings  of  the  human  heart ;  yet  he  was  never 
content  with  merely  arousing  the  emotions. 
With  him  the  appeal  to  the  intellect  and  feelings 
was  but  a  means  to  an  end,  and  that  end  was  to 
command  the  wills  of  men. 

He  taught  men  many  truths,  bilt  his  aim  was  Character  and 
not  primarily  to  make  men  learn,  but  to  teach  ^^^^  *^^  ^°^^  °^ 
them  how  to  live  and  act.  With  him  impression  Teachings 
was  intended  simply  to  lead  to  expression.  The 
rich  young  ruler,  with  his  large  knowledge  of 
truth  and  his  well-developed  emotions,  was  met 
with  the  simple  command  to  go  out  and  do. 
Jesus's  aim  in  sending  out  his  disciples  that  they 
might  preach  the  word  was  clearly  not  that  he 
might  simply  extend  a  little  further  the  circle  of 
his  influence  in  Galilee,  but  that  they  who  had 
heard  his  teachings  might  have  the  experience  of 
doing  and  might  thus  perfect  their  training  as 
disciples.  Although  their  work  was  not  alto- 
gether successful,  the  joy  on  the  part  of  the  Great 
Teacher  as  they  came  back  with  a  report  of  real 


I  28        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

achievement,  was  clearly  because  he  saw  in  their 
work  evidence  of  the  success  of  his  teaching.  In 
all  Jesus's  work  as  a  teacher,  his  supreme  cri- 
terion v\^as  not  what  people  thought  or  felt  or 
said,  but  what  they  did.  "By  their  fruits  ye  shall 
know  them"  was  with  him  the  ultimate  test  of  all 
character  and  life. 
Directness  and  Another  Striking  characteristic  distinguishes  all 
Simplicity  ^j-j^^  Jcsus  tauglit  and  did,  namely,  the  rare  and 

all-important  quality  of  directness  and  simplicity. 
Pascal  quaintly  says,  "Jesus  Christ  speaks  things 
so  simply,  that  it  seems  he  had  never  thought 
upon  them."  His  Csirliest  advice  to  his  disciples 
Avas  to  be  simple :  "Let  your  words  be  simply 
yes  and  no."  This  characteristic  of  the  world's 
greatest  teacher  is  illustrated  by  all  that  he  him- 
self said  and  taught.  Later  transmission  and 
translation  have  in  a  few  cases  obscured  the  clarity 
of  his  original  utterances,  but  through  all  his 
teachings  there  is  a  simplicity  that  ever  discloses 
the  profoundest  depths  of  his  teaching  and  meth- 
ods. He  never  wasted  himself  with  long  intro- 
ductions. He  first  established  a  personal  point  of 
contact  and  then  led  his  hearers  on  at  once  to  the 
highest  spiritual  vantage  point.  In  their  com- 
plete absorption  in  the  theme  his  hearers  lost 
themselves,  later  to  find  themselves  mastered  by 
a  commanding  ideal  and  purpose,  and  launched 
upon  their  great  lifework. 
The  Above    all,    Jesus    proved    himself   the    great 

^"^^^^i"^e^*  °^  teacher  of  men  because  he  did  not  merely  pro- 
claim truths,  as  did  Israel's  earlier  teachers,  but 
was  himself  the  embodiment  and  the  complete 
illustration  of  all  that  he  taught.    "Be  ye  perfect 


His  Teachings 


Jesus*s  Way  of  Making  Men  1  29 

even  as  I  am  perfect"  was  one  of  the  new  and 
strong  notes  which  stirred  the  world.  ''Follow 
me"  was  his  constantly  implied,  as  well  as  ex 
pressed,  command.  Jesus  himself  was  the  supreme 
demonstration  of  all  the  truth  that  he  taught. 
It  was  this  complete  demonstration  that  man- 
kind needed  as  the  crowning  and  convincing  proof 
of  all  that  the  earlier  teachers  had  proclaimed. 
Jesus  became  the  Saviour  of  men,  and  established 
his  right  to  that  highest  of  titles,  not  only  because 
he  was  the  greatest  teacher  that  the  world  has 
ever  seen,  but  also  because  he  showed  by  his  own 
acts  and  life  that  men  wath  human  limitations 
could  attain  to  the  divine  life.  In  the  light  of  this 
great  truth,  Paul's  unequivocal  declaration  that 
Jesus  'Svas  tempted  in  all  points  as  we  are"  be- 
comes O'le  of  the  most  significant  statements  in 
all  the  New  Testament.  It  throws  a  clear  light, 
not  only  upon  the  character  of  Jesus,  but  also 
upon  his  work  as  a  teacher.  It  reveals  Jesus  as 
the  one  normal  man  among  all  the  sons  of  God. 
He  was  torn  by  real  temptations,  yet  victorious; 
he  was  joyful  in  the  face  of  opposition  and  unjust 
malignant  persecution ;  he  was  true  at  every  crisis 
to  the  highest  and  divinest  ideals  of  life  and 
service.  In  discordant  Palestine  he  lived  serene 
and  happy  and  in  perfect  harmony  with  God,  as 
well  as  in  loving  and  helpful  touch  with  every 
human  being  with  whom  he  came  in  contact. 
The  oldest  records  reveal  a  mind  unclouded  by 
sm,  ever  open  to  the  divine  message,  and  a  per- 
sonality developing  from  day  to  day  into  the 
unique,  the  divine  man,  the  goal  and  crown  of 
God's  creation. 


Men 


1 30     Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

Saviour  Because  Jcsus  liimsclf  clcarly  felt  that  it  was  God's 
a^Teacherof  purpose  that  he  should  not  stand  alone,  but  that 
he  should  in  turn  be  the  Teacher  and  Saviour  of 
men.  While  he  claimed  unique  divine  sonship 
for  himself,  he  declared  plainly  that  the  ultimate 
goal  of  all  his  work  was  that  his  disciples  and 
those  who  followed  him  should  become  indeed 
"one  wnth  God  even  as  he  was  one."  Further- 
more, he  proclaimed  without  hesitation  that  they 
should  do  greater  works  than  he  had  done.  To 
realize  this  supreme  and  larger  ideal  of  develop- 
ing the  divine  qualities  in  every  man  Jesus  de- 
voted himself  completely  and  with  God-given  tact 
and  skill  to  the  task  of  the  teacher.  By  virtue  of 
his  own  work  as  a  teacher  and  that  of  his  faith- 
ful disciples,  he  stands  in  all  ages  as  the  uni- 
versal Saviour  of  mankind. 


Teaching 

/ 


XIII 

THE  AIMS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN 
TEACHERS 

It  was  inevitable  that  the  followers  and  dis-  Reasons  for  the 
ciples  of  the  Great  Teacher  would  give  the  teach-  Emphasis  on 
ing-  ministry  a  central  place  in  their  work.  Most 
of  the  leaders  in  the  early  Christian  Church,  like 
Paul,  sat  at  the  feet  of  the  Jewish  rabbis.  The 
example  of  their  Jewish  teachers  intensified  still 
further  the  tendency  to  depend  almost  entirely 
upon  teaching  as  a  means  of  extending  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Master  and  of  spreading  abroad  his 
teachings.  The  signihcant  title  ''disciple"  or 
"learner"  long  continued  to  be  used  in  the  early 
Church  as  the  most  common  designation  of  a 
follower  of  Jesus.  The  early  Christian  liter- 
ature, such  as  the  Epistles,  the  records  in  Acts, 
and  the  Didache  or  Teachings  of  the  Apostles, 
are  all  the  products  of  the  teaching  motive,  and 
all  bear  testimony  to  the  prominence  of  the 
teacher  and  his  work.  The  marvelous  spread  of 
Christianity  in  the  early  centuries,  when  the 
emphasis  on  the  teaching  ministry  was  stronges 
is  undoubtedly  largely  due  to  this  prominence 
given  to  teaching. 

Paul,  the  earliest  writer  in  the  New  Testament,  Teaching  work 
distinguishes  four  or  five  different  groups  of  of  the  Apostles 
leaders.  In  i  Corinthians  12.  28  he  speaks  of 
apostles,  prophets,  and  teachers.  In  Ephesians 
4.  II  he  refers  to  five  distinct  classes — apostles, 
prophets,  evangelists,  pastors,  and  teachers — 
131 


1  32      Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

as  having  been  appointed  by  Jesus  to  "fit  his 
people  for  the  ministry  and  for  the  building  up 
of  the  body  of  Christ."  The  exact  character  and 
functions  of  each  of  these  classes  of  teachers  are 
not  entirely  clear.  In  its  narrower  definition  the 
term  ''apostle"  was  applied  only  to  the  twelve  dis- 
ciples selected  by  Jesus  himself.  Paul,  however, 
by  virtue  of  having  seen  the  Christ,  claimed  a 
place  in  this  limited  group,  and  his  claim  was 
universally  recognized  by  the  early  Church.  The 
term  is  also  applied  in  Acts  14.  4,  14,  to  Barnabas, 
as  well  as  to  Paul.  Paul  called  other  missionaries 
like  himself  apostles,  as,  for  example,  Andron- 
icus  and  Junia,  in  Romans  16.  7  (see  also  Gal. 
2.  7-9;  I  Cor.  9.  i).  In  the  Didache  or  Teach- 
ings of  the  Apostles,  the  term  is  equivalent  to 
itinerant  teachers.  They  are  instructed  not  to 
stay  in  one  church  more  than  two  days,  not  to 
receive  money,  not  to  have  more  than  a  day's 
rations  for  their  services.  Paul,  however,  con- 
stantly called  himself  a  teacher  as  well  as  an 
apostle  (for  example,  2  Tim.  i.  11)  and  desig- 
nated his  work  as  teaching  (i  Cor.  4.  17;  Rom. 
16.  17).  In  Acts  2.  40-42  Peter's  preaching  is 
called  teaching.  According  to  Acts  4.  18  John 
and  Peter  were  publicly  ordered  not  to  speak  and 
teach.  It  is  evident  from  these  references,  as 
well  as  from  reports  of  their  utterances,  that  not 
only  were  the  apostles  teachers  as  well  as 
preachers,  but  that  their  public  preaching  was 
influenced,  both  in  content  and  in  form,  by  the 
aims  and  methods  of  the  teacher. 

The   evangelists,   like   the  apostles,   appear  to 
have    been    traveling    teachers    and    preachers. 


Aims  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers     1  33 


Of  the 

Evangelists  and 
Prophets 


Philip  the  evangelist,  whose  work  is  recorded  in 
Acts  8,  is  the  best  example  of  this  class.  The 
prophets  in  the  early  Church  wxre  really  preach- 
ers and  exhorters.  This  form  of  service  also  ap- 
pears to  have  been  performed  by  many  different 
members  of  the  Christian  communities  and  to 
have  been  a  blending  of  emotional  and  didactic 
elements.  Paul's  tieatment  of  the  subject  in  I 
Corinthians  14  is  exceedingly  illuminating.  He 
concludes  with  the  counsel  of  the  prophets  [or 
preachers],  let  two  or  three  speak  and  let  the 
others  weigh  what  is  said.  But  if  a  revelation  is 
m.ade  to  another  sitting  by,  let  the  first  keep 
silence.  For  3^ou  can  all  preach  in  turn,  that  all 
may  learn  and  all  be  comforted.  And  the  spirits 
of  the  prophets  [or  preachers]  are  subject  to  the 
prophets,  for  God  is  not  a  God  of  confusion,  but 
of  peace    (14.  29-33). 

The  pastors,  or  early  bishops,  were  connected  of  the  Pastors 
with  the  local  churches.  According  to  i  Timothy 
3.  2  one  of  their  most  important  qualifications 
was  that  they  must  be  ''apt  to  teach."  In  the 
epistles  which  bear  their  names,  Timothy  and 
Titus,  who  are  typical  bishops  or  pastors,  are 
constantly  urged  by  Paul  to  teach  and  in  turn  to 
train  their  successors  for  this  work  (2  Tim.  2.  2). 

Furthermore,  in  i  Timothy  5.  17,  the  great 
apostle  lays  down  the  principle  that  the  presby- 
ters or  elders,  "who  labor  in  word  and  doctrine," 
are  to  receive  double  remuneration  for  their 
services.  According  to  the  Didache  (15.  i),  even 
the  deacons  in  the  early  Church  were  expected  to 
perform  the  work  of  teachers.  Thus  it  is  evident 
that  all  the  different  classes  of  leaders  in  the  early 


Of  the  Lay 
Workers 


1  34      Teaohers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

Church  were  especially  trained  and  consecrated  to 
the  ministry  of  teaching. 
The  Professional       In   addition   to    tliis   organized   teaching   army 
Teachers  there  was   in   the  early   Church  a   special   class 

which  bore  the  title  of  teachers.  They  enjoyed, 
together  with  the  apostles  and  prophets,  a  posi- 
tion of  the  highest  honor  in  the  community.  It 
is  probable  that,  in  contrast  to  the  itinerant 
teachers,  they  resided  permanently  in  the  local 
churches.  The  author  of  the  Epistle  of  James 
identifies  himself-  with  these  teachers,  and  this 
epistle  doubtless  clearly  represents  the  content 
and  form  of  the  teachings  which  they  inculcated 
in  the  minds  of  their  disciples.  In  the  same  con- 
nection the  author  of  the  Epistle  of  James  advises 
that  there  "be  not  many  teachers,  knowing  as 
you  do  that  we  w^ho  teach  shall  be  judged  by  a 
more  severe  standard  than  others"  (3.  i).  The 
author  of  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  modestly  states 
that  he  does  not  presume  to  write  as  a  teacher 
(i.  8;  4.  9). 
Their  Duties  In    fuuctiou    and    uicthods    tlicsc    profcssioual 

teachers  in  the  early  Church  corresponded  to  the 
teaching  scribes  in  the  Jewish  communities. 
Their  first  task  was  to  interpret  the  Old  Testa- 
ment scriptures  in  the  light  of  the  new  revela- 
tion. Their  second  duty  was  probably  to  instruct 
the  members  of  each  church,  and  especially  the 
new  converts,  in  the  teachings  of  the  IMaster  and 
in  the  laws  and  doctrines  of  the  Church.  The 
First  and  Second  Epistles  of  Timothy  and  that 
of  Titus  are  manuals  for  the  guidance  of  pastors 
in  their  work  of  teaching.  The  Didache,  or 
Teachings  of  the  Apostles,  is  evidently,  from  its 


Aims  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers     1  3  5 

contents  as  well  as  from  its  title,  a  text-book  tO' 
"be  used  in  instructing  disciples.  The  public 
services  of  the  early  Church  were  apparently 
modeled  after  the  services  of  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue. If  so,  teaching  was  made  more  promi- 
nent than  preaching,  and  it  was  in  connection 
with  the  public  services  that  the  teachers  probably 
did  much  of  their  work.  There  is  no  direct  testi- 
mony, but  it  is  probable  that  they  gave  personal 
instruction  and  also  taught  small  groups  of  dis- 
ciples, as  in  the  m.odern  Sunday  school. 

Because  of  their  honorable  and  influential  posi-  The  Danger  of 
tion  in  the  Christian  community,  the  teachers,  ^^^^^  Teaching 
like  the  prophets,  were  exposed  to  the  temptation 
of  presenting  misleading  doctrines.  Paul,  in  his 
injunctions  to  Timothy,  endeavored  to  guard 
against  this  danger  to  the  faith  of  the  Church : 
^'What  you  have  learned  from  me  in  the  presence 
of  many  listeners,  intrust  to  reliable  men,  who 
will  be  able  in  turn  to  teach  others."  The  Di- 
dache  (11.  2),  as  well  as  the  Second  Epistle  of 
John  (10),  intimates  that  some  of  these  teachers 
were  spreading  heretical  views.  That,  as  a  rule, 
the  teachers  of  the  early  Church  proved  true  to 
their  high  calling  is  convincingly  demonstrated 
by  the  marvelous  spread  of  Christianity  through- 
out the  Roman  world. 

Their  aims,  as  well  as  that  of  the  larger  group   Aims  of  the 
of  teachers  who  were  associated  with  them,  are   Teachers:  (i)  to 
clearly  stated  in  the  Epistles.     They  first  sought  ^hrt^esus  was 
to  make  clear  to  the  Jews  that  Jesus  was  the  ful-  the  Messiah 
fillment  of  the   noblest   Messianic   hopes  of  the 
race.    Acts  9.  20  states  that  Paul,  after  his  con- 
version, began  immediately  at  Damascus  to  pro- 


1  36      Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

claim  Jesus  the  Son  of  God.  This  truth  is  the 
basis  of  most  of  the  popular  sermons  found  in 
the  first  part  of  the  book  of  Acts.  It  is  also  the 
main  thesis  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which, 
as  the  title  suggests,  was  addressed  especially  to 
the  Jews. 
(2)  To  Teach  the  Their  sccoud  aim  was  to  teach  Jew  and  Gen- 
Facts  Regarding   ^-^^  ^j-j^^  ^^^  £^^^g  regarding  the  character  and 

Jesus  .  . 

work  of  Jesus  in  order  to  inspire  personal  faith 
and  devotion  to  him.  These  facts  constituted  the 
Gospel,  the  Good  News,  which  the  early  Chris- 
tian missionaries  carried  to  the  ends  of  the  known 
world.  Its  basis  was  definite  instruction.  Its 
goal  was  the  extension  of  the  faith  in  the  Master. 
The  Jewish  officials  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  familiar 
story  of  Acts  5.  17-32,  charged  Peter  and  the 
apostles  with  having  flooded  Jerusalem  with  their 
teachings.  To  this  charge  the  apostles  replied : 
"We  must  obey  God  rather  than  men;  the  God 
of  our  fathers  raised  up  Jesus,  whom  you  put  to 
death  by  hanging  him  on  a  cross.  It  is  this  Jesus 
whom  God  had  exalted  to  his  right  hand,  to  be  a 
guide  and  a  saviour,  to  give  Israel  repentance 
and  forgiveness  of  sins.  And  we  are  witnesses 
to  the  truth  of  this,  and  so  is  the  Holy  Spirit — 
the  gift  of  God  to  those  who  obey  him."  As 
faithful  witnesses  to  a  great  transforming  truth 
the  apostles  went  forth  in  quest  of  disciples, 
some  to  their  Jewish  kinsmen,  and  others,  like 
Paul,  to  the  needy  Gentile  world.  In  Galatians 
I.  16  and  2.  7  Paul  plainly  declares  that  the  latter 
was  his  especial  field.  In  i  Corinthians  2.  2  he 
states  that  while  at  Corinth  he  had  determined 
that  he  would  "know  nothing  save  Jesus  Christ 


Aims  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers      I  37 

and  him  crucified."  In  I  Timothy  2.  7  he  calls 
himself  a  teacher  of  the  Gentiles  in  faith  and 
truth. 

The  third  aim  was  to  transmit  and  inculcate    (3)  To  Transmit 
the   teachino^s   of   Jesus   in   their   simplicity   and  ^^^  Teachings 

cy  -f  ir  '  of  Jesus 

purity.  The  author  of  the  Second  Epistle  of 
John  is  explicit  on  this  point:  "Every  one  who 
goes  beyond  and  does  not  keep  to  the  teaching  of 
the  Christ  has  not  God.  He  who  keeps  to  the 
teaching  has  both  the  Father  and  the  Son.  If 
anyone  comes  to  you  and  does  not  bring  this 
teaching,  do  not  receive  him  into  your  house  nor 
welcome  hmi,  for  the  man  that  welcomes  him  is 
sharing  in  his  wicked  work"   (9-1 1). 

The  fourth  aim  was  to  inspire  in  men  a  deep   (4)  To  inspire 
and   commanding   love    for    God.      This    aim    is   ^°^®  ^°^  ^°^ 
formulated  clearly  in  i  Timothy  1.5:  "The  ob- 
ject of  instruction  is  to  call  forth  that  love  which 
comes  from  a  pure  heart,  a  good  conscience,  and 
a  sincere  faith." 

The  fifth  aim  was  to  make  noble,  happy,  and  (5)  To  Make 
efficient  men  and  women  through  faith  and  devo-  M^nand'^vvomen 
tion  to  Jesus.  To  the  Corinthians  Paul  declared : 
"What  we  pray  for  is,  that  you  may  become 
perfect"  (2  Cor.  13.  9).  To  the  Colossians 
he  wrote :  "Since  therefore  you  have  received 
Jesus,  the  Christ,  as  Lord,  walk  in  him,  rooted  in 
him  and  building  up  your  characters  in  him, 
growing  stronger  through  your  faith,  even  as 
you  were  taught"  (Col.  2.  6,  7;  see  also  3. 
12-16).  Again  to  Tim^othy  he  wrote:  "Aim  at 
righteousness,  faith,  love,  endurance,  gentleness." 
Throughout  all  the  epistles  there  is  the  same 
powerful  emphasis  on   character  and  individual 


1 38      Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


(6)   To  Train 

Effective 

Teachers 


Ultimate  Aims: 
The  Making  of 
Men 


efficiency  as  the  ultimate  goal  of  all  Christian 
preaching  and  teaching. 

The  sixth  aim  was  to  train  disciples  who 
would,  in  turn,  become  successful  teachers.  In 
Ephesians  4.  12  Paul  states  that  Jesus  gave  to 
the  Church  the  different  classes  of  teachers  "in 
order  to  fit  his  people  for  the  ministry,  for  the 
building  up  of  the  body  of  Christ."  He  also 
exhorted  the  Colossians  to  "teach  and  admonish 
each  other  with  psalms  and  hymns  and  sacred 
songs,  singing  to  God  with  grace  in  their  hearts" 
(Col.  3.  16). 

Thus  the  aims  of  the  early  Christian  teachers 
were  closely  identical  with  those  of  the  Great 
Teacher.  As  was  natural  they  placed  greater 
emphasis  than  had  he  upon  personal  devotion  to 
him.  While  they  gave  more  attention  to  faith 
and  articles  of  belief,  they  did  not  make  the  mis- 
take, so  often  committed  by  the  Church  in  later 
ages,  of  failing  to  appreciate  the  fundamental 
importance  of  personal  character  and  deeds. 
Their  consuming  desire  was  not  to  propagate  a 
doctrine,  but  to  make  men.  To  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  divine  task  all  else  was  purely  sec- 
ondary. 


XIV 


THE  ^lETHODS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN 
TEACHERS 

In  realizing  their  aims  the  early  Christian 
teachers  at  first  trusted  little  to  the  written  word. 
From  his  epistles  it  is  clear  that  Paul  resorted  to 
the  use  of  letters  only  when  unable  to  go  and 
speak  in  person  to  his  disciples  in  the  various 
cities  which  he  had  visited.  Then  he  wrote  as 
he  would  have  spoken  had  he  been  present  in 
their  midst.  As  the  circle  of  his  influence  broad- 
ened, he  was  obliged  to  depend  more  and  more 
upon  writing.  The  noble  epistles  which  consti- 
tute so  large  a  part  of  the  New  Testament  are  the 
result  of  this  necessity.  Other  apostles  followed 
his  example,  putting  in  this  permanent  form  the 
teachings  which  they  wished  their  disciples  to 
emphasize.  As  the  horizon  of  the  Church  wid- 
ened in  the  succeeding  centuries,  the  Church 
fathers  depended  more  and  more  upon  the  pen  as 
the  means  of  conveying  and  perpetuating  their 
teachings. 

The  earlier  Christian  teachers  were  fully  alive 
to  the  importance  of  the  personal  touch  and  the 
influence  of  their  own  personality  upon  those 
whom  they  wished  to  reach  and  instruct.  As  a 
rule,  they  dealt  with  the  vital  questions  of  faith 
and  practice  which  directly  concerned  those 
whom  they  were  teaching.  Their  instruction  was 
therefore  always  direct  and  practical.  On  the 
basis  of  this  close  touch  with  the  needs  of  the 
139 


Limited  Use  of 
the  Written 
Word 


Importance  of 
Oral  Instruction 


1 40      Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

individual,  they  built  up  a  body  of  teachings 
which  they  committed  to  their  disciples,  instruct- 
ing them  in  turn,  as  did  Paul,  to  transmit  them  to 
others.  Central  in  all  their  instruction  were  the 
teachings  of  the  iNIaster,  which  were  at  first 
handed  down  orally.  Later  these  were  collected, 
as,  for  example,  in  Matthew's  so-called  "Sayings 
of  Jesus,"  which  was  the  chief  and  probably  the 
oldest  source  from  which  the  authors  of  our  pres- 
ent Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Luke  drew  their 
teaching  material.  This  strong  emphasis  upon  oral 
instruction  in  the  early  Church,  strengthened  as 
it  was  by  the  example  of  Jesus  and  the  great 
teachers  of  Judaism,  explains  why  a  long  period 
elapsed  after  the  death  of  the  Master  before  any 
attempt  was  made  to  prepare  written  records  of 
his  life  and  teachings. 
Training  of  It  is  also  evident  that,  like  Jesus,  each  great 

Disciples  Christian  teacher  sought  to  train  a  group  of  dis- 

ciples. Among  this  inner  group  of  followers  who 
gathered  about  Paul  were  John  Mark,  Luke  the 
physician,  Timothy,  and  Titus.  Between  himself 
and  these  young  men  Paul  established  a  close 
bond  of  afifection  and  friendship.  At  the  same 
time  he  inspired  them  with  confidence  in  their 
own  powers.  He  expected  much  of  them,  as  he 
plainly  declared,  and  this  expectation  was  not  dis- 
appointed. He  gave  especial  attention  to  their 
training,  followed  them  with  his  letters,  and  was 
careful  to  open  to  them  as  far  as  possible  the  door 
of  opportunity.  Not  only  did  he  take  them  with 
him  in  his  journeys,  and  thus  instruct  them  by 
actual  experience  and  under  his  personal  direc- 
tion, but  also,  as  they  entered  upon  their  inde- 


Methods  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers     1 4 1 

pendent  work,  he  gave  them  minute  directions  as 
to  what  and  how  they  should  teach.  This  sys- 
tematic, thorough,  practical  training  of  its  teach- 
ers contributed  largely  to  the  invincible  conquer- 
ing power  of  the  early  Church. 

Preaching  was  also  a  prominent  factor  in  the   Teaching 
early   history   of   Christianity,   especially   in    the   ^^^"^^"t  ^"  *^« 

•     VI  •      •  1  \        •       Ku  1  •  Preaching 

niitial  missionary  work.  As  111  the  early  min- 
istry of  Jesus,  it  was  the  net  spread  broadcast  to 
draw  the  responsive  into  the  closer  relation  of 
discipleship.  Paul  called  himself  both  a  preacher 
and  a  teacher,  but  in  all  the  sermons  of  the  great 
apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  as  well  as  those  recorded 
in  the  opening  chapters  of  the  book  of  Acts,  there 
is  a  strong  teaching  element.  There  was  ever 
a  close  personal  touch  between  the  preacher  and 
those  addressed.  He  w^as  keenly  alive  to  the 
problems  which  concerned  them.  Questions 
were  constantly  interjected  by  him,  as  well  as  by 
his  hearers.  In  the  Christian  communities  public 
preaching  in  the  modern  sense  was  apparently 
less  common.  The  traditions  of  the  synagogue 
still  dominated  the  public  services  of  the  church. 
The  prophets,  who  corresponded  to  the  modern 
preachers,  came  largely  from  the  ranks,  accord- 
ing as  each  man  was  gifted;  and  preaching  never 
overshadowed  the  teaching  ministry. 

Another   characteristic    method   of    the    early   interpretation 
Christian  teachers  was  the  public  interpretation  °J  ^^^  °^'^^'' 

.       ^  .  ^  ,       Scriptures 

of  the  Old  Testament  scriptures,  thus,  accord- 
ing to  Acts  8.  32-36,  Philip  led  the  Ethiopian 
treasurer  to  faith  in  Jesus  through  his  interpre- 
tation of  the  great  servant  passage  in  Isaiah  53. 
The  apostolic  sermons   recorded  in  the   second 


1 42     Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

chapter  of  Acts  are  simply  interpretations  of  the 
earHer  prophecies  in  Hght  of  the  new  faith.  In 
Acts  17.  2  we  are  told  that  Paul,  following  his 
usual  custom,  met  the  Jews  in  their  synagogue  at 
Thessalonica  and  for  three  Sabbaths  reasoned 
with  them,  drawing  his  arguments  from  the 
scriptures.  The  Jewish  synagogues,  scattered 
throughout  the  Roman  w^orld,  were  the  scenes  of 
most  of  Paul's  early  teachings  (see  Acts  9.  20; 
13-  5'  15)-  Ii"i  Philippi  he  sought  out  the  Jews 
at  their  place  of  prayer  by  the  river.  In  every 
case  the  ancient  scriptures  of  his  race  were  the 
common  ground  on  which  he  met  his  Jewish 
hearers  and,  in  interpreting  these,  he  led  them  to 
the  acceptance  of  the  new  and  larger  truths. 
Exhortations  As  was  natural  w4th  men  completely  filled  with 

and  Warnings  their  subjcct  and  inspired  with  a  deep  love,  ex- 
hortations and  earnest  warnings  were  often  used 
by  these  early  teachers.  Through  these  they 
appealed  to  the  emotions  and  wills  of  those  whose 
confidence  and  love  they  had  already  won.  The 
New  Testament  epistles  are  shot  through  with 
these  fervent  appeals,  which  reveal  the  aft'ection 
and  noble  purpose  of  the  apostles.  Thus  Paul 
wrote  to  the  Corinthians :  "Therefore,  my  beloved 
brethren,  stand  firm,  unmovable,  always  diligent 
in  the  work  of  the  Lord,  for  you  know  that  your 
labor  in  the  Lord  is  not  in  vain"  (i  Cor.  15.  58). 
In  the  same  spirit  the  author  of  the  First  Epistle 
of  Peter  exhorts  his  readers :  "Beloved,  I  be- 
seech you  as  sojourners  and  pilgrims  to  refrain 
from  indulging  fleshly  lusts  which  war  upon  the 
soul ;  make  your  behavior  among  the  Gentiles 
so  upright  that,  whenever  they  malign  you  as 


Methods  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers      1 43 

evildoers,  they  may,  because  of  your  good  works 
which  they  behold,  praise  God  in  the  day  of  visi- 
tation" (2.  II,  12). 

Being  wise  teachers,  these  early  makers  of  men  commendation 
were  fully  aware  of  the  value  of  judicious  com- 
mendation. Thus  Paul,  in  the  beginning  of  his 
letter  to  the  Romans  and  in  his  second  letter  to 
the  Corinthians,  speaks  at  length  and  in  strong- 
est terms  of  their  virtues  before  he  goes  on  to 
consider  questions  of  conduct  or  to  censure  his 
readers. 

The  Christian  teachers  constantly  used  ques-  Questions  and 
tions  and  answers  in  developing  and  presenting  Answers 
their  teachings.  They  appreciated  the  value  of 
this  method  of  fixing  the  attention  of  their  dis- 
ciples upon  the  subject  under  consideration.  In 
the  first  part  of  the  ninth  chapter  of  his  first 
letter  to  the  Corinthians  Paul  asked  fifteen  ques- 
tions in  ten  short  verses.  In  the  Epistle  of  James, 
which  illustrates  most  clearly  the  methods  of 
the  early  Christian  teachers,  questions  are  con- 
stantly asked,  som.etimes  with  a  view  to  fixing 
the  thought  in  the  mind  of  the  disciple  and  some- 
times to  present  vividly  a  question  for  their  con- 
sideration, even  as  the  Jewish  scribes  outlined 
possible  cases  to  test  the  skill  of  their  pupils.  It 
is  clear  from  these  indications  that  the  question 
method  was  much  used  wherever  the  early 
Christian  Church  was  trained. 

These  questions  often  led  to  discussions  which   Discussions 
were    encouraged    by    the    wise    teacher.      The 
Epistle  of  James   (2.  14-25),  in  its  treatment  of 
the  relation  of  faith  to  deeds,   contains  a  good 
example  of  the  value  of  discussion  as  a  means  of 


1 44     Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

bringing  out  truths.  The  presentation  is  so  clear 
that  the  questions  can  still  be  heard  as  they  came 
from  the  lips  of  the  religious  teacher,  as  well  as 
the  conclusions  advanced  by  the  different  mem- 
bers of  his  class.  As  in  modern  classrooms  to- 
day, these  discussions  sometimes  ceased  to  be 
profitable,  so  that  the  wise  counsel  is  given  to 
Titus  to  "have  nothing  to  do  with  foolish  dis- 
cussions, or  with  controversy,  or  with  disputes 
about  the  law,  for  they  are  useless  and  futile" 

(3-9.  lo)- 
Arguments  Somctimcs    the    Christian    teachers    employed 

logical  arguments  to  convince  their  disciples. 
The  first  part  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  are  excellent  examples 
of  this  method,  of  teaching.  As  with  the  sages 
and  Jesus,  the  appeal  was  always  through  the 
reason  to  the  will,  and  the  ultimate  aim  of  each 
argument  was  to  develop  faith  or  to  arouse 
action. 
Summaries  Another    characteristic    method    of    the    early 

Christian  teachers  is  the  frequent  introduction  of 
comprehensive  summaries  of  their  previous 
teachings.  They  appreciated  the  importance  of 
fixing  the  vital  truth  in  the  minds  of  their  dis- 
ciples by  means  of  clear  restatement.  A  good 
example  is  found  in  i  Cormthians  lo.  31-33. 
After  discussing  at  length  what  should  be  the 
attitude  of  Christians  toward  the  things  ofifered 
to  idols,  Paul  embodies  the  heart  of  his  teach- 
ing in  the  pregnant  words :  "Whether,  there- 
fore, you  eat  or  drink,  or  whatever  you  do, 
do  all  to  the  glory  of  God.  Give  no  occasion  of 
stumbling  either  to  Jews  or   Greeks   or  to  the 


Methods  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers     1 45 

church  of  God,  even  as  I  also  please  all  men  in 
all  things,  not  seeking  mine  own  profit,  but  the 
profit  of  the  many,  that  they  may  be  saved." 

In  the  literary  form  in  which  the  Christian  Precepts 
teachers  put  their  message  there  are  many  indi- 
cations of  the  influence  of  Israel's  early  sages. 
The  teaching  was  universal,  adapted  alike  to  all 
ages  and  races.  All  traces  of  the  nationalistic 
thought  of  the  earHer  priests  and  prophets  had 
disappeared.  They  dealt  simply  and  directly 
with  the  problems  common  to  all  mankind.  They 
put  their  teachings  in  a  form  adapted  to  this 
end.  One  of  the  most  frequently  used  forms  was 
the  precept,  which  could  be  easily  memorized  and 
readily  applied.  Examples  of  this  form  of  teach- 
ing appear  on  every  page  of  the  epistles.  That  of 
James  contains  the  greatest  number  of  examples. 
Thus  in  i.  19  he  teaches:  ''Let  every  man  be 
quick  to  hear,  slow  to  speak,  and  slow  to  get 
angry."  Again  in  5.  12  he  commands:  "Above 
all  things,  my  brothers,  take  no  oath,  either  by 
heaven,  or  by  earth,  or  by  anything  else.  With 
you  let  'Yes'  suffice  for  yes,  and  'No'  for  no,  so 
that  you  may  not  fall  under  condemnation." 
Paul's  familiar  words:  "Bear  ye  one  another's 
burdens,  and  so  carry  out  the  law  of  Christ," 
(Gal.  6.  2)  well  illustrate  the  use  of  the  precept. 

Many  of  these  precepts  were  also  cast  in  poetic,   Proverbs  and 
proverbial  form,  as,   for  example,  Paul's  apho-   similitudes 
rism  in  Galatians  6.  8: 

He  that  sows  to  his  own  flesh  shall  of  the  flesh  reap 

corruption ; 
But  he  that  sows  to  the  spirit  shall  of  the  spirit  reap 

eternal  life. 


Beatitudes  and 
Allegories 


Clearness,  not 
Literary  Form, 
the  Aim  of  the 
Early  Teachers 


1 46     Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

Sometimes  the  similitude  was  also  used,  as  in 

James  2.  26: 

Even  as  the  body  apart  from  the  spirit  is  dead, 
So  faith  without  works  is  dead. 

Like  their  Master,  the  Christian  teachers  ap- 
preciated the  value  of  the  beatitude.  A  noble 
example  is  found  in  James  i.  12:  "Blessed  is  the 
man  who  remains  firm  under  temptation,  for 
when  he  has  stood  the  test  he  shall  receive  the 
crown  of  life^  which  the  Lord  hath  promised  to 
those  who  love  him."  In  Galatians  4.  21-27  Paul 
employs  an  extended  allegory. 

As  a  rule,  the  literary  forms  used  by  the  early 
Christian  teachers  were  exceedingly  simple. 
Their  one  aim  was  not  to  embellish  the  truth  but 
to  make  it  clear  and  effective.  The  literature 
which  comes  from  them  is  barren  compared  with 
that  found  in  the  older  Jewish  scriptures.  Their 
writings  were  not  the  product  of  leisure  or  of  the 
spontaneous  literary  vigor  of  a  primitive  people, 
but  rather  of  the  burning  desire  to  instill  prac- 
tical and  helpful  truths  into  the  minds  of 
men  who,  burdened  with  sin  and  ignorance,  were 
struggling  amid  mighty  temptations  and  bitter 
persecutions.  Li  his  wonderful  apostrophe  to 
love  in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  I  Corinthians, 
Paul  reveals  a  masterly  literary  style.  It  is  the 
spontaneous  expression  of  the  experience  of  a 
lifetime.  It  reveals  the  literary  possibiHties  of 
the  great  apostle.  Ordinarily  he  had  no  time  to 
give  attention  to  the  form  in  which  he  expressed 
his  teachings.  In  most  of  his  utterances  the 
thoughts  rushed  upon  him  so  rapidly  as  he  medi- 
tated   upon    the    needs    and    problems    of   those 


Methods  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers     1 47 

to  whom  he  was  writing,  that  he  could  scarcely 
stop  to  finish  one  sentence  before  beginning  an- 
other. As  he  wrote,  so  he  probably  taught,  ex- 
pressing by  face,  gesture,  and  intonation  what 
he  did  not  put  into  words. 

Above  all,  Paul,  and  the  class  of  early  teachers 
which  he  represents,  knew  that  the  supreme  suc- 
cess of  the  teacher  depended  upon  the  personality 
back  of  the  message.  The  author  of  the  Epistle 
of  james  surely  had  this  great  truth  in  mind 
when  he  said  that  teachers  must  be  judged  by 
another  standard  than  that  by  which  ordinary 
men  were  tested.  Paul  often,  not  boastingly,  but 
in  order  to  appeal  to  his  hearers,  held  up  his  own 
character  and  life  and  work  as  the  ultimate  proof 
of  the  truth  of  his  teachings.  To  the  Corinthians 
he  declared :  "Truly  the  marks  of  an  apostle 
were  exhibited  among  you  in  constant  endurance, 
as  well  as  by  signs,  by  wonders,  and  by  mighty 
works"  (2  Cor.  12.  12).  When  Titus  was  about 
to  enter  upon  his  work  as  pastor  and  teacher, 
Paul's  concluding  injunctions  were :  'Tn  all  things 
show  thyself  an  example  of  good  works.  In  your 
teaching  show  sincerity  and  a  serious  spirit.  Let 
what  you  say  be  sound  and  above  reproach,  that 
the  enemy  may  be  ashamed,  having  nothing  bad 
to  say  of  us"  (2.  7,  8).  Thus  in  aim,  spirit, 
micthods,  and  life  the  early  Christian  teachers 
proved  faithful  followers  of  the  ^Master,  leaving 
to  the  Christian  Church  a  clear  example  of  how 
it  also  can  follow  in  his  footsteps  and  perform  its 
God-given  task,  not  only  of 


Importance  of 
the  Personality 
of  the  Teacher 


saving  but  making 


men. 


XV 


Misleading 
Definitions 
of  Religion 


Its  Larger 
Content 


Its  Normal 
Development 


THE  LARGER  PROPHETIC  AND  CHRISTIAN 
CONCEPTION  OF  RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION 

All  ages,  races,  and  individuals  have  their 
own  definition  of  reHgion.  Early  races  defined  it 
as  loyalty  to  the  Deity  expressed  by  certain  cere- 
monial forms  of  worship.  The  theologians  of 
the  past  generation  and  many  to-day  define  it  as 
a  dogma,  and  make  its  primary  demand  the  ac- 
ceptance of  a  creed.  Some  put  the  emphasis 
solely  on  the  emotions  and  states  of  mind;  others, 
on  character  and  deeds.  Each  and  all  of  these 
definitions  are  narrow  and  incomplete.  They  fall 
far  short  of  the  requirements  of  the  great  teachers 
of  Judaism  and  Christianity.  Religion  is  a  union 
of  all  these  varied  elements.  Because  they  have 
been  defined  so  narrowly  the  words  "religion" 
and  ''religious"  have  become  wayworn.  To  many 
they  suggest  only  sectarianism  or  the  creeds  of 
a  church.  Inasmuch  as  no  newer  and  fresher 
term  is  to  be  found  in  the  English  language,  the 
word  ''religion"  must  again  be  given  its  original 
meaning. 

Defined  objectively  and  simply,  religion  is  the 
individual's  attitude  toward  God  and  man,  ex- 
pressed in  faith,  in  worship,  in  life,  and  in 
service.  It  is  the  impelling  force  in  all  that  a 
man  thinks  or  feels  or  does. 

Religion  in  some  more  or  less  complete  form 
is  the  possession  of  everyone.  In  its  richness  and 
completeness  it  is  the  result  of  the  normal  de- 
148 


Larger  Conception  of  Religious  Education    1 49 

velopment  of  the  divinely  implanted  impulses 
found  in  every  human  soul.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  pagan  and  the  true  Christian  is  pri- 
marily a  difference  in  the  degree  of  development. 
The  normal  man  is  one  whose  religious  impulses 
have  been  naturally  and  fully  developed  under 
the  influence  of  the  proper  training  and  environ- 
ment. The  growth  of  religion  is  as  mysterious 
and  yet  as  natural  as  that  of  the  plant  or  the 
human  body.  Men  who  seem  to  be  totally  with- 
out religion  are  those  whose  normal  spiritual 
growth  has  been  arrested  through  unfavorable 
environment  or  lack  of  the  proper  teaching  and 
direction.  As  physical  strength  is  "developed, 
so  spiritual  health  and  vigor  come  through  proper 
exercise.  They  are  the  product  of  action  and 
experience,  as  well  as  of  study  and  meditation. 
Hence  the  personal  application  of  religious  truths 
is  as  essential  as  instruction ;  in  fact,  expression 
and  impression  are  the  complements  of  each 
other. 

Inasmuch  as  religion  is  something  inherited  as  The  Keiigious 
well  as  personal,  its  primary  inspiration  is  the  Rentage 
message  and  life  and  work  of  the  great  heroes  of 
the  faith.  Our  individual  faith  to-day  represents 
the  united  efforts  of  countless  millions  to  know 
the  character  and  will  of  the  Deity,  and  God's 
response  to  that  effort.  This  cumulative  reli- 
gious knowledge  corresponds  to  the  inherited 
wealth  of  observation,  experience,  and  experi- 
mentation in  the  fields  of  art,  science,  and  prac- 
tical invention.  The  prophets  of  the  race  were 
the  great  spiritual  inventors,  who  with  open 
minds  and  intense  zeal  sought  first  to  know  the 


Personal  Faith 


1 50       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

divine  truth  and  then  to  transmit  it  in  intelHgible 
fonn  to  their  fellow  men.  Faith  in  God,  in  his 
love,  in  his  revelation  of  himself  through  the  lives 
of  men  and  in  his  guidance  of  the  individual,  is  the 
rightful  heritage  of  every  human  being.  Hence 
the  first  duty  of  the  enlightened  is  to  transmit  this 
inestimable  heritage,  in  its  simplest  and  most 
impressive  form,  to  each  new,  unfolding  life. 
Moreover,  only  as  the  truths  won  by  the  expe- 
riences of  the  race  are  reincarnated  in  the  life  of 
an  individual  can  religion  be  made  an  abiding, 
etTective  force. 
Growth  of  In  the  normal  child  faith  is  a  natural  growth. 

It  rests  on  the  bedrock  of  common  human  expe- 
rience and  belief,  and  is  the  result  of  normally 
developed  human  impulses.  With  this  naturally 
developing  faith  comes  a  corresponding  growth 
of  character.  As  Emerson  has  said,  *'^Ian  is  a 
part  of  all  with  which  he  associates."  As  in  the 
chemical  world,  certain  agents  produce  certain 
reactions.  If  the  individual  comes  only  into  con- 
tact with  the  errors  or  crude  beliefs  of  heathen- 
ism, or  with  the  barbarous  practices  of  savages 
or  of  the  criminal  class,  the  religious  impulses 
within  him  remain  undeveloped;  the  egoism  and 
selfishness  of  the  child  continue  to  rule  in  the 
life  of  the  man,  even  though  he  be  physically 
mature.  On  the  other  hand,  wholesome  contact 
with  the  heroes  of  the  faith  and  careful  instruc- 
tion in  the  vital  truths  inherited  from  the  noblest 
religious  teachers  of  the  race  are  the  forces  that 
make  strong  religious  character,  as  well  as  stead- 
fast faith. 

The  contributions  of  modern  psychology  are 


Larger  Conception  of  Religious  Education   1  5  1 


Light  from 
Modern 


beginning  to  throw  light  on  that  most  nitricate 
of  subjects— the  development  of  the  human  mind   p^y^^Tiogy 
and  soul.    It  has  been  demonstrated  beyond  ques- 
tion that  to  insure  desired  results  the  teaching 
must  be  thoroughly  adapted  in  both  content  and 
form  to  the  mental  and  spiritual  capabilities  of 
the  child,  the  youth,  and  the  man  in  each  stage 
of  his  development.    In  the  light  of  this  principle 
religious  education  is  ceasing  to  be  a  groping  in 
the  dark.     Here  the   laws  of   cause   and  effect 
apply  as  rigidly  as  in  any  field  of  human  expe- 
rience.    Through  the  great  door  which  has  been 
but  recently  opened,  we  can  now  see  clearly  that 
the  fully  rounded  religious  character  is  neither 
a  miracle  nor  the  product  of  a  moment.     It  is 
rather  the  result  of  growth.     Beginning  with  the 
earliest   years   of   infancy,    it   gradually   unfolds 
until  in  the  case  of  the  normal  man  and  woman 
it  reaches  its  richest  development  in  the  later  years 
of  life  after  the  bodily  and  mental  powers  have 
reached  their  culmination.  Certain  periods,  as,  for 
example,  the  ages  from  six  to  thirteen,  are  char- 
acterized by  their  rich  receptiveness.    At  another 
period,  that  of  early  adolescence  (from  thirteen 
to  sixteen),  the  reason  and  the  emotions  unite 
under  the  right  influences  in  leading  to  great  and 
important   decisions,    which   determine  the   indi- 
vidual's relations  both  to  God  and  his  fellows. 

The  larger  conception  of  religion  and  the  re-  The  Larger 
cent  contributions  of  practical  psychology  have   Definition  of 
revealed  the  real  significance  of  religious  educa- 
tion.    It  is  not  mere  instruction  in  certain  doc- 
trines or  in  the  forms  of  worship.     Its  ultimate 
goal  is  to  develop  individual  character  and  efii- 


Religious 
Education 


1  5  2       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

ciency.  It  seeks  to  create  the  Christlike  attitude 
toward  God  and  man,  which  comes  from  a  simple 
clear  faith,  a  spirit  of  true  reverence,  a  normally 
developed  character,  and  trained  powers,  entirely, 
enthusiastically  consecrated  to  the  service  of  one's 
fellows.  It  is  the  education  not  of  a  part  but 
of  the  whole  man.  It  is  the  task  not  of  a  moment 
but  of  a  lifetime.  It  is  the  work  not  merely  of 
parents  or  teachers  or  pastors,  but  the  united 
product  of  all  the  influences  that  affect  the  phys- 
ical or  mental  powers,  the  habits,  the  beliefs, 
and  the  ideals  of  the  individual.  One  of  the 
supreme  tasks  of  religious  education  is  to  co- 
ordinate all  these  influences  so  that  they  will 
harmonize  in  producing  the  highest  results. 
The  object  of  all  religious  education  is  not  con- 
formity to  arbitrary  standards,  but  to  train 
the  individual  child  in  harmony  with  his  divinely 
unfolding  possibilities.  This  broader  concep- 
tion of  religious  education  emphasizes  the  pro- 
found importance  of  a  scientific  study  of  the 
impulses,  the  tendencies,  and  the  possibilities  of 
the  child  at  each  stage  in  his  development.  It 
demands  a  careful  weighing  of  our  religious  heri- 
tages with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  relative 
values  as  aids  in  religious  culture.  It  also  clearly 
reveals  the  necessity  for  a  thorough  grading  and 
adaptation  of  this  material. 
Rediscovery  of  lustructiou  in  rcHgion  is  to-day  easier  and 
the  Bible  morc  definite  than  ever  before  because  our  knowl- 

edge of  the  great  religious  teachers  of  the  past 
and  of  their  message  is  more  exact.  As  the  result 
of  the  work  of  careful,  consecrated .  biblical 
scholarship  the  late  Jewish  and  Christian  tradi- 


Larger  Conception  of  Religious  Education    1  5  3 

lions,  which  have  hitherto  obscured  the  records 
of  the  faith,  are  being  set  aside.  What  many 
faithful  Christians  feared  was  to  be  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Bible  has  already  proved  to  be  its 
rediscovery.  Again  the  early  heroes  of  the  faith 
stand  forth  and  speak  to  us  almost  as  distinctly 
as  they  spoke  to  their  contemporaries.  Their 
messages,  which  come  from  hearts  aflame  with 
love  for  God  and  their  fellow  men,  are  evoking 
a  new  response  in  the  hearts  of  men.  That  which 
is  of  secondary  value  is  being  turned  over  to  the 
historian  and  archaeologist ;  while  the  vital,  abid- 
ing truths  stand  forth  in  their  original  strength 
and  beauty.  Never  before  in  the  world's  history 
were  men  consciously  or  unconsciously  reaching 
out  with  greater  eagerness  for  that  divine  heri- 
tage. ^  .       .        .      ■ 

In  a  sense  it  is  a  new  Bible  which  is  being  re-  its  Large  Place 
vealed  to  the  present  generation — not  new  because  ^"  Modem  Life 
any  of  its  truths  have  been  changed  or  set  aside, 
but  because  our  attitude  toward  it  is  fundamen- 
tally different.  Beauties  hitherto  unnoticed  are 
now  clearly  perceived.  Truths  overlooked  or 
only  half  appreciated  are  transforming  the  life 
and  faith  and  ideals  of  mankind.  The  example 
as  well  as  the  words  of  such  a  prophet  as  Isaiah 
are  inspiring  thousands  of  men  and  women 
to  study  the  social  and  economic  conditions  of 
their  day  and  to  unite  with  the  devoted  spirit  of 
the  Hebrew  prophets  in  an  heroic  endeavor  to 
realize  in  the  life  of  the  community  the  divine 
ideals  of  justice  and  fraternity. 

Of  all  the  many  astounding  discoveries  which  The  Rediscovery 
have  made  glorious  the  century  just  passed,  none  °^J®^"^ 


1  54        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 


The  Simpler 
Theology 


The  New  Social 
Sense 


in  its  effect  upon  the  world's  civilization  will  com- 
pare with  that  of  the  discovery  of  the  real  Jesus. 
To-day  the  misinterpretations  of  early  Chris- 
tian tradition,  the  powerful  influence  of  Greek 
thought  upon  the  beliefs  of  the  early  Church, 
the  effects  of  the  ignorance  and  barbarity  of  the 
IMiddle  Ages,  and  the  crudities  of  the  philosophies 
and  theologies  of  the  past  generations  are  being 
set  aside  with  the  spirit  of  reverence  but  of  fidel- 
ity to  the  truth.  The  result  is  that  Jesus  as  he 
was  known  to  his  daily  companions  and  revealed 
by  the  earliest  records  is  clearly  seen  by  the 
present  generation.  Instead  of  being  borne 
further  away  on  the  current  of  time,  the  Great 
Teacher  to-day  speaks  to  men  more  distinctly 
and  directly  than  ever  before. 

In  the  light  of  Jesus's  teaching  and  example, 
the  faith  of  his  followers  is  becoming  wonder- 
fully simple.  Instead  of  the  transcendental  God 
of  post-exilic  Jewish  theolog}^  far  removed  from 
the  everyday  life  of  his  children,  they  behold  one 
supreme  personality  pervading  the  entire  universe. 
Above  all,  he  is  a  God  who  is  ever  seeking  to  re- 
veal himself  in  and  through  the  lives  and  hearts 
of  men.  The  one  supreme  problem  of  religious 
education,  therefore,  is  to  open  the  mind  of  each 
individual  so  that  God's  personality,  which  is 
truth  and  love,  may  find  full  expression,  even  as 
it  did  in  the  spirit,  character,  and  deeds  of  the 
divine  Son  of  man. 

With  this  simpler  and  truer  conception  of  God 
and  his  relations  to  men,  there  is  to-day  dawning 
upon  the  consciousness  of  the  Christian  world  a 
new  social  sense.    In  place  of  the  prevailing  over- 


Larger  Conception  of  Religious  Education  1  55 

accentuated  individualism  is  coming  a  fuller 
recognition  of  the  unity  of  the  race.  Through 
study  and  keener  observation,  men  are  beginning 
to  perceive  how  closely  the  well-being  of  the  indi- 
vidual is  bound  up  with  that  of  the  community  and 
state.  They  are  realizing  that  it  is  far  better  to 
strive  for  the  common  good  than  for  the  indi- 
vidual good,  for  the  commonwealth  than  for  per- 
sonal wealth.  Practical  sociology  and  kindred 
sciences  are  revealing,  as  never  before,  the  rights 
and  needs  of  the  dependent  classes  and  the  obli- 
gation of  the  strong  to  the  weak.  They  are  also 
makmg  clear  the  scientific  methods  whereby  the 
needs  of  society  may  be  satisfactorily  met.  The 
result  is  that  the  spirit  of  service,  the  noblest  and 
ultimate  expression  of  religion,  no  longer  wastes 
itself  in  mere  feeling  or  blind  effort,  but  bears 
rich  and  practical  fruits. 

With  this  larger  definition  of  religion,  with  this  The  Enlarged 
new  and  broader  interpretation  of  the  Bible,  with  ^1^^^^°''"^" 
this  clearer  vision  of  Jesus,  and  with  this  vastly 
enlarged  field  of  service,  it  is  inevitable  that  the 
Church,  which  is  the  recognized  agent  for  the 
development  of  religion  in  the  life  both  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  of  society,  should  enter  upon  a  new 
and  nobler  mission.  Its  first  task,  as  of  old,  is 
to  transmit  to  the  individual  the  messages  of  the 
great  religious  heroes  and  teachers  of  the  race 
and  thus  to  aid  in  the  development  of  personal 
faith.  Its  second  task  is  to  foster  the  spirit  of 
reverence  and  worship.  It  is  also  called  to  pro- 
claim the  good  news  ''to  the  lost  sheep  of  the 
house  of  Israel"  and  to  lead  them  back  into  the 
way  of  truth  and  service.     But  in  the  light  of 


Importance 

of  the  Teaching 

Ministry 


Adjustment  of 
the  Church  to 
Its  Great  Task 


1  56        Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

modern  psychology  and  the  example  of  the  Great 
Teacher  its  larger  task  is  not  merely  to  save  men, 
but  above  all  to  make  men.  Thus  its  great  mission 
is  to  cooperate  with  God  himself  in  developing 
by  right  environment  and  wise  teaching  the  divine 
potentialities  latent  in  each  individual. 

Doubtless  in  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  preach- 
ing will  always  occupy  an  important  place  in  the 
life  of  the  Church,  for  it  is  by  no  means  anti- 
thetic, but  rather  supplemental,  to  the  ministry 
of  teaching.  If,  however,  the  Church  is  true  to 
the  traditions  of  its  founders  and  to  the  needs  of 
the  present  situation,  it  will  give  to  teaching  at 
least  an  equal  place  with  the  ministry  of  preach- 
ing and  of  worship.  In  America  to-day,  direct 
religious  instruction  is  left  almost  entirely  to  the 
Church.  Here  lies  its  great  responsibilit}^  and 
opportunity;  for  the  development  of  the  ideals 
and  character  of  each  rising  generation  is  the 
noblest  and  most  important  task  of  all.  If 
through  its  Sunday  school  and  other  educational 
agencies  the  Church  meets  this  great  need  of  our 
modern  civilization,  it  will  win  thereby  greater 
honor  and  more  loyal  support  than  ever  before 
in  its  history. 

Before  it  can  discharge  this  divinest  of  mis- 
sions there  must  be  a  fundamental  readjustment 
within  the  Church  itself.  The  membership  of 
the  Church  must  awaken  to  the  magnitude  of  its 
responsibility  and  to  the  transcendent  importance 
of  religious  education.  Its  officers  must  not  only 
give  liberally  of  the  Church  funds,  but  also  of 
their  influence  and  energies  in  perfecting  the 
equipment  and  standards  of  the  Sunday  school, 


Larger  Conception  of  Religious  Education    1  5  7 

the  great  teaching  body  of  the  Church,  They 
must  also  reorganize  the  other  agencies  of  the 
Church  on  an  educational  basis.  Through  trained 
Sunday  school  superintendents  and  directors  of 
religious  education  they  must  raise  its  teaching 
ministry  to  a  far  higher  degree  of  efficiency.  The 
Church  must  again  sit  at  the  feet  of  the  Great 
Teacher  and  learn  to  apply  more  perfectly  his 
methods  of  making  men.  At  the  same  time,  it 
must  build  on  the  established  results  of  modern 
psycholog}^  and  education.  It  must  meet  the 
alert,  critical  youth  of  to-day  with  a  constructive, 
modern  interpretation  of  the  Bible  and  with 
standards  and  doctrines  that  will  guide  them  in 
the  hour  of  doubt  and  temptation  and  satisfy 
the  cravings  of  their  souls.  Furthermore,  the 
Church  must  draw  to  itself  and  feed  with  life- 
saving  bread  the  millions  of  children  who  are 
still  untouched  by  its  influence.  These  great 
tasks  call,  as  never  before,  for  a  united  Church 
of  Christ  to  minister  to  the  religious  needs  of 
each  community,  even  as  does  the  public  school 
in  the  field  of  secular  education.  To  do  its  real 
work  the  Church  must  become  what  now  it  is 
not — a  communal  institution.  Thus  through  the 
peculiar  needs  of  the  present  age  Jesus  is  call- 
ing to  his  Church  and  to  his  faithful  ones  to 
find  their  life  by  losing  it  in  the  most  fruitful  and 
noble  of  services — the  making  of  men. 


APPENDIX 
QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY 


APPENDIX 

QUESTIONS  FOR  STUDY 
I.     The  Secret  of  Israel's  Conquering  Power 

I.  What  two  great  religions  are  rooted  in  Judaism? 
2,  Why  did  the  religion  of  the  Israelites  make  so  deep 
an  impression  on  the  faith  of  mankind?  3.  In  what 
sense  was  Judaism  a  teaching  religion?  4.  What  was 
the  standing  of  the  teacher  among  the  Jews?  5.  What 
is  the  attitude  of  the  modern  Jew  to  education  ? 
6.  What  was  the  chief  aim  of  Israel's  teachers?  7. 
What  three  distinct  classes  of  teachers  were  found 
in  ancient  Israel?  8.  What  purpose  led  the  authors 
of  the  Old  Testament  books  to  write?  9.  What  three 
types    of   teaching   are   found    in    the    Old   Testament? 

10.  What  was  the  purpose  that  led  the  authors  of  the 
New  Testament  books  to  write?  11.  Formulate  your 
own  definition  of  the  Bible. 

11.  The  Real  Character  and  Aims  of  the  Prophets 

I.  What  was  the  real  character  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets?  2.  Were  they  primarily  predictors?  3. 
What  universal  human  desire  gave  rise  to  the  prophets? 
4,  Describe  the  ancient  kahin.  5.  What  national  crises 
called  forth  Samuel  and  Deborah?  6.  Describe  the 
way  in  which  Amos  became  a  prophet.     7.  Isaiah's  call. 

8.  What  personal  experiences  gave  Hosea  his  message? 

9.  Did  any  great  prophets  arise  in  Israel  unless  called 
forth    by    some    political,     social    or    religious    crisis? 

10.  In  what  different  ways  did  the  prophets  perform 
their  work?      11.  Define  their  four  great  aims? 

III.     The  Prophets  as  Story  Tellers  and  Preachers 

I.  Cite  examples  of  the  use  of  practical  diplomacy  by 
the  prophets  in  realizing  their  aims?  2.  What  illus- 
trations drawn  from  Israel's  history  were  used  by 
Amos  and  Hosea?  3.  For  what  purpose  were  most 
of  the  stories  in  the  opening  books  of  the  Bible  intro- 
duced? 4.  Why  are  they  of  great  teaching  value?  5. 
What  are  some  of  the  important  prophetic  truths 
that  they  illustrate?  6.  What  was  the  most  common 
161 


1  62       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

method  by  which  the  prophets  appealed  to  the  people  ? 

7.  Picture  in  imagination  the  way  in  which  Amos 
addressed  the  people  assembled  at  Bethel.  8.  Why 
did  the  prophets  put  their  messages  in  poetic  form? 
9.  What  was  the  significance  of  the  different  meters 
that  they  used?  10.  In  what  different  literary  forms 
did  they  present  their  teachings?  11.  Give  illustrations. 
12.  Why  did  they  give  so  much  attention  to  the  form 
in  which  they  expressed  their  messages? 

IV.     The  Teaching  Methods  of  the  Prophets 

I.  What  evidence  is  there  that  the  prophets  aimed 
to  train  disciples?  2.  What  is  the  especial  value  of 
this  method  of  teaching?  3.  What  symbolic  names  did 
Hosea  and  Isaiah  give  to  their  children?  4.  What 
object  lessons  were  used  by  the  prophets?  5.  Describe 
some  of  Ezekiel's  dramatic  illustrations.  6.  What  led 
the  prophets  to  write  down  their  messages?  7.  Com- 
pare the  prophetic  apocalypse  and  the   direct  address. 

8.  What  are  some  of  the  indications  of  the  moral 
earnestness  of  the  prophets?  9.  On  what  occasions 
did  Amos  and  Isaiah  show  great  tact?  10.  What  were 
the  chief  characteristics  of  the  teaching  methods  of  the 
prophets?  11.  How  far  are  these  characteristics  im- 
portant to-day? 

V.     The  Duties  and  Aims  of  the  Priests 

I.  What  evidence  regarding  the  position  and  duties 
of  the  preexilic  priests  is  found  in  the  early  narrative 
in  Judges  18?  2.  Why  were  the  Levites  probably  at 
first    intrusted   with    the    care    of   the   ancient    shrines? 

3.  What   was  the  early  use   of  the  term  son  of  Levi? 

4.  How  was  the  term  later  used  ?  5.  What  were  the 
fourfold  duties  of  the  priests?  6.  Which  was  their 
most  prominent  duty  before  the  exile  ?  7.  Why  was 
the  influence  of  the  priests  upon  the  people  especially 
strong?    8.  What  were  the  distinct  aims  of  the  priests? 

VI.     The  Teaching  Methods  of  the  Priests 

I.  How  prominently  did  the  priestly  oracle  figure  in 
early  Hebrew  history?  2.  What  was  the  oracle  and 
how  was  it  probably  used?  3.  What  opportunities  did 
the  priests  have  to  influence  the  people  in  connection 
with  the  oracle?  4.  How  as  judges?  5.  In  what  way 
was  Moses  Israel's  great  lawgiver?     6,  What  evidence 


Appendix  1 63 

is  there  that  the  priests  used  the  catechetical  method? 
7.  How  many  decalogues  are  found  in  Exodus  20  to 
23?  8.  With  what  subjects  do  they  deal?  9.  What 
was  the  value  of  the  decalogue  as  a  means  of  teaching? 
10.  What  was  the  real  significance  of  the  ritual?  11. 
Describe  the  growth  of  ceremonial  and  written  law. 
12.  What  were  the  characteristic  teaching  methods  of 
the  priests? 

VII.     The  History  and  Aims  of  the  Wise 
]\Ien  or  Sages 

I.  What  needs  gave  rise  to  the  class  of  the  wise? 
2.  Among  what  other  ancient  people  were  the  wise 
found?  3.  Where  in  the  East  to-day?  4.  Why  is  so 
little  knowm  about  the  Hebrew  wise?  5.  What  are  the 
earliest  traces  of  their  thought  in  the  Old  Testament? 
6.  Describe  the  work  of  the  two  wise  women  who 
aided  Joab.  7.  Of  the  two  wise  men  in  the  court  of 
David?  8.  What  was  the  real  character  of  Solomon's 
wdsdom?  9.  Cite  illustrations.  10.  Why  was  the  book 
of  Proverbs  later  attributed  to  him?  11.  What  pre- 
exilic  prophets  refer  to  the  wise?  12.  Why  were  the 
wise  especially  prominent  after  the  exile?  13.  What 
are  the  characteristics  of  the  wise  man  described  by 
Ben  Sira?  14.  What  was  the  source  of  the  authority 
and  teaching  of  the  wise?  15.  What  were  the  five 
distinct  aims  of  the  wnse?  10.  Compare  their  aims 
with  those  of  the  modern  Sunday  school  teacher. 

VIII.    The  ]\Iethods  of  the  Wise  Men  or  Sages 

I,  What  subjects  especially  interested  the  wise?  2. 
What  was  their  theory  of  education  ?  ^  3.  How  far  did 
they   appreciate   the   importance   of  primary   education? 

4.  Is  there  any  evidence  that  they  ever  spoke  in  public? 

5.  What  was  their  ordinary  place  and  manner  of  teach- 
ing? 6.  What  classes  did  they  seek  especially  to 
reach?  7.  How  did  the  people  of  their  day  express 
their  appreciation  of  their  w^ork?  8.  What  Old  Testa- 
ment and  Apocryphal  books  are  from  the  w^ise?  9. 
Define  a  proverb  and  indicate  its  value  as  a  means  of 
instruction.  10.  Give  examples  of  similitudes  in  the 
book  of  Proverbs.  11.  What  advantages  did  the  riddle 
and  parable  possess  as  a  means  of  instruction?  12. 
How  did  the  wise  deal  with  the  evils  of  laziness  and 
drunkenness?     13.  What  is  the  problem  and  the  great 


1 64       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

teaching-  of  the  book  of  Job?  14.  What  pedagogical 
principles  may  be  learned  from  the  example  of  the 
Hebrew   wise  ? 

IX.  The  History  and  Aims  of  the  Scribes 

AND  Rabbis 

I.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  earliest  reference  to  the 
scribes  in  the  Old  Testament?  2.  How  did  the  Babylo- 
nian exile  affect  the  work  of  the  scribes?  3.  What 
methods  did  Ezra  use  in  teaching  the  people?  4.  What 
transformed  the  wise  into  scribes,  and  what  effect 
did  this  transformation  have  upon  the  scribes?  5. 
How  were  the  early  scribes  regarded  by  the  people?  6. 
What  was  the  work  of  the  Sopherim?  7.  Contrast 
the  character  and  teachings  of  Hillel  with  those  of 
Shammai.     8.  What  were  the  chief  aims  of  the  scribes? 

X.  The  Methods  of  the  Scribes  and  Rabbis 

I.  What  great  advantages  as  teachers  did  the  scribes 
possess?  2.  What  fatal  weakness  lay  at  the  founda- 
tion of  their  work?  3.  In  what  three  ways  were  they 
able  to  reach  and  teach  the  people?  4.  How  far  did 
they  depend  upon  public  discussion  and  question  and 
answer?  5.  Upon  memorization?  6.  Upon  didactic 
stories?  7.  Define  Haggada  and  Halacha.  8.  Quote 
some  of  the  nobler  precepts  and  proverbs  of  the  scribes. 
9.  What  was  their  teaching  regarding  prayer?  10. 
Discuss  their  use  of  beatitudes,  parables,  and  alle- 
gories. II.  What  were  the  chief  defects  in  their  teach- 
ings and  what  was  the  great  need  of  Judaism? 

XL     The  Tr.\ining  and  Aims  of  the  Great  Teacher 

I.  Under  what  three  titles  was  Jesus  addressed  by 
the  men  of  his  day?  2.  Which  is  the  most  exact  title 
and  why?  3.  What  was  the  supreme  vindication  of 
Jesus's  emphasis  upon  teaching?  4.  Describe  the  in- 
fluences of  Jesus's  home  at  Nazareth.  5.  WHiat  oppor- 
tunities did  he  have  for  studying  the  scriptures  of  his 
race?  6.  With  what  different  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment was  he  intimately  acquainted  ?  7.  What  books 
made  the  deepest  impression  upon  him?  8.  What  class 
of  Israel's  teachers  influenced  Jesus's  method  most 
deeply  and  why?  g.  Give  examples  of  Jesus's  use  of 
proverbs  and  questions.  10.  What  were  the  special 
advantages    of    beatitudes    as    a    method    of    teaching? 


Appendix  1 65 

II.  When  and  why  did  Jesus  use  parables?  12.  What 
was  his  purpose  in  employing  the  paradox  and  hyper- 
bole? 13.  What  were  Jesus's  aims  as  a  teacher?  14. 
To  which  would  you  say  he  gave  the  central  place? 

XI I.    Jesus's  Way  of  Making  Men 

I.  What  were  Jesus's  unique  qualifications  as  a 
teacher?  2.  Why  did  he  not  commit  his  teachings  to 
writing?  3.  What  was  his  chosen  way  of  perpetuat- 
ing them  ?  4.  What  fundamental  characteristic  of  a 
truly  great  teacher  did  he  illustrate  ?  5.  What  was  the 
object  of  his  acts  of  healing?  6.  Cite  illustrations  of 
Jesus's  adaptation  of  his  teachings  to  those  whom  he 
wished  to  teach?  7.  Did  he  present  his  teachings  in 
abstract  or  concrete  form?  8.  How  far  did  he  em- 
ploy abjective  illustrations?  9.  Why  did  he  always 
put  his  teachings  in  positive  form?  10.  What  was  the 
basis  of  the  note  of  authority  which  characterized  all 
his  teachings?  11.  To  what  in  man  did  he  ultimately 
appeal?  12.  What  was  his  test  of  each  man's  religious 
life?  13.  Discuss  the  effect  of  Jesus's  character  and 
life  upon  his  disciples.  14.  In  what  sense  is  he  the 
universal  Saviour  of  mankind? 

XIII.     The  Aims  of  the  Early  Christian  Teachers 

I.  Why    did   Jesus's   disciples   go   forth    as   teachers? 

2.  What   were   the   teaching   functions  of  the  apostles? 

3.  Of  the  evangelists  and  prophets?  4.  Of  the  pastors 
and  lay-workers?  5.  What  were  the  character  and 
duties  of  the  professional  teachers  in  the  early  church? 

6.  What  was  the  primary  aim  of  the  early  Christian 
apostles,  as  illustrated  by  the  opening  chapters  of  Acts  ? 

7.  How  did  they  transmit  the  facts  regarding  Jesus's 
life  and  teachings?  8.  In  what  respects  were  the  aims 
of  the  early  apostles  identical  with  those  of  Jesus? 
9.  In  what  respects  did  they  differ? 

XIV.     The    Methods    of    the    Early    Christian 
Teachers 

I.  Why  did  the  early  church  place  strong  emphasis 
on  oral  instruction?  2.  What  led  Paul  to  write  his 
epistles?  3.  How  far  did  Paul  devote  himself  to  train- 
ing disciples?  4.  Was  Paul  preeminently  a  preacher 
or  a  teacher?  5.  Cite  examples  of  Paul's  use'  of  exhor- 
tation,   warning,   and   commendation.     6.  How   far   did 


1  66       Teachers  of  Judaism  and  Christianity 

the  early  Christian  teachers  employ  questions  and  dis- 
cussions? 7.  Cite  examples  of  the  use  of  arguments 
and  summaries.  8.  What  types  of  teaching  charac- 
teristic of  the  wise  were  used  by  the  apostles?  g.  What 
New  Testament  book  has  sometimes  been  called  the 
Christian  book  of  Proverbs?  10.  What  importance  did 
Paul  attach  to  the  personality  of  the  teacher? 

XV.     The  Larger  Prophetic  and  Christian  Concep- 
tion   OF    Religious    Education 

I.  What  are  some  of  the  current  false  definitions 
of  religion?  2.  In  the  light  of  the  example  and  teach- 
ings of  the  prophets  and  Jesus  formulate  your  own 
definition  of  religion.  3.  How  does  the  religious  life 
of  the  individual  normally  develop?  4.  What  is  the 
nature  of  the  common  religious  heritage  of  the  race? 
5.  How  far  does  environment  affect  the  growth  of  in- 
dividual faith?  6.  What  are  some  of  the  practical 
contributions  of  psychology  to  our  knowledge  of  re- 
ligious growth?  7.  What  are  the  chief  aims  and 
methods  of  religious  education?  8.  In  what  sense  has 
the  Bible  been  rediscovered?  9.  How  is  its  value 
to  the  present  generation  thereby  increased  ?  10.  What 
obstructions  that  have  hitherto  obscured  the  true  char- 
acter and  work  of  Jesus  have  been  removed?  11. 
What  is  meant  by  the  new  social  sense?  12.  What  is 
the  teaching  mission  of  the  Church?  13.  How  is  it 
to  meet  this  responsibility?  14.  How  can  your  in- 
dividual church  adjust  itself  to  its  special  task? 


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